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Early
Armored Cavalrymen
(1)
Romano-Egyptian heavily armoured cavalryman, 31 BC.
This
figure is copied from part of the famous monument to a senior naval officer of
the time of Marcus Antonius, now in the Vatican museum, and from the Mausoleum
of the Titeci near Lake Fucinus. He probably represents a member of the kataphraktoi
of the Eastern allies of Cleopatra and M. Antonius, or perhaps even a member of
their bodyguard. Note the helmet with wide cheek-guards partly protecting the
face; the thorax stadios (‘muscled’ or anatomical) cuirass; the shield of scutum
type, and the three javelins. Hidden here, his right arm would be covered with
articulated ‘hoop’ armour.
(2)
Romano-Thracian cataphract; Chatalka, c. AD 75−100
The
armoured cavalryman from the Chatalka burial in Bulgaria may have worn what Arwidson
calls ‘belt armour’ – a combination of iron plates, scales and splints in the
Iranian tradition. The neck is protected by a thick iron gorget, following the
Thracian–Macedonian style; it was made in two pieces connected by a strap, and
the outer surface was originally painted red. Surviving individual rings show
that it was worn over a separate ringmail collar. Note his magnificent masked helmet
(see reconstructions on pages 8-9). The Chatalka burial also included a
beautiful sword of Chinese type.
Early
Units, 2nd Century AD
(1)
Sarmatian cataphract; Adygeia, c. 110 AD
Archaeological
finds at the Gorodoskoy farm site on the ancient Pontic steppes in Adygeia
(Russian Federation) revealed the impressive armour of a true Sarmatian cataphractus,
a prototype for the Roman armoured contarius. He wears a segmented iron
spangenhelm with an attached scale aventail; the skull consists of four
vertical pieces with the space between filled with horizontal strips, as
depicted on Trajan’s Column. The height of the occupant of the grave was about
1.7m (5ft 6in), and the superb ringmail coat was up to 1.5m long (4ft 11in). At
the top it fastened with buckles to the scale aventail. At the bottom it was
divided into two flaps, allowing the wearer to sit on a horse with ease; the
flaps were wrapped around the legs like trousers, being fastened in this position
above the knee and on the shins with wide ringmail strips. Because of the poor
preservation of the recovered armour the length of the sleeves is not clear,
but given the degree of easy movement that would be required to wield the swords
and javelins found in such graves we assume that they ended at the elbows. He
carries a long spatha-type sword, but his main weapon is the very long contus
sarmaticus.
(2)
Decurio of Ala Prima Gallorum et Pannoniorum catafractata, 2nd century AD
The
reconstruction of this junior officer is based on the studies of Gamber. He
proposes that the chamfron found at Newstead, Scotland, and other recovered
fragments of leather horse armour decorated with rivets, give an idea of the
appearance of the mounts used by the early Roman cataphracts. The decurion’s
personal armour is reconstructed from Pannonian gravestones and archaeological
finds; the troopers also could wear decorated helmets like this Trajanic or
Hadrianic example from Brza Palanka, and bronze ocreae (greaves). We have completed
him with full-length ‘hooped’ articulated arm protection (the galerus), a
cavalry spatha and the contus.
(3)
Praefectus of an Ala catafractata, late 2nd century AD
This
unit commander is largely reconstructed from the horseman balteus decoration
from Trecenta in the Veneto region of northeast Italy. The officers of the
cataphracts wore beautiful decorated helmets of Hellenic taste, here copied
from an open-mask specimen ex-Axel Guttman collection (AG451). He is wearing a composite
armour formed by a thorax stadios and laminae vertically disposed around the lower
trunk, following the system of the Iranian ‘belt armour’, and copper-alloy
greaves. Gamber proposes the mace as an officer’s weapon, which may be confirmed
by a specimen found in Dura Europos associated with cavalry finds, and by the
fighting position of the cavalryman represented on the Trecenta balteus
fitting. A regimental commander’s horse equipment would be suitably
magnificent; decorated pectoral protections with embossed figures, and partial bronze
chamfrons with eye-protectors, have been found near Brescia, Turin, Vienna and
in other localities.
First Half of the 3rd
Century AD
Primera mitad del siglo III
(1) Osrhoenian heavy cavalry
sagittarius, army of Severus Alexander; Gallia, AD 235
According to Herodian,
Severus Alexander had brought with him for his Rhine frontier campaign a large
force of archers from the East including from Osrhoene, together with Parthian
deserters and mercenaries. The horse-archers included heavy armoured units;
shooting from well beyond the range of the Germans’ weapons, they did great
execution among their unarmoured adversaries. We have given this soldier some
Roman equipment found in north German bogs, such as the mask helmet from
Thorsbjerg and the ringmail shirt from Vimose, integrated with clothing and
fittings from Parthian and Hatrene paintings. Iconography (e.g. synagogue
painting from Dura), and graffiti suggest that the composite bow and a quiver
would have been carried slung from the saddle behind the right leg, convenient
for the right hand.
(1) Saggittarius de caballería pesada de Osroene, ejército de Severo
Alejandro, Galia, 235
Según Herodiano, Severo
Alejandro trajo con él para su campaña en la frontera del Rhin una gran fuerza
de arqueros del este incluyendo de Osroene, junto con desertores y mercenarios
partos. Los arqueros a caballo incluían unidades fuertemente acorazadas,
disparando desde más allá del alcance de los germanos, causaban una gran
matanza entre sus enemigos sin armadura. Le hemos dado a este soldado algún
equipo romano encontrado en ciénagas de la Germania septentrional, como el
casco con máscara-visera de Thorsbjerg y la cota de malla de Vimose, integrados
con ropa y adornos de pinturas de Partia y Hatra. La iconografía (es decir la
pintura de la sinagoga de Dura), y los grafitos-graffiti sugieren que el arco
compuesto y la aljaba se habrían llevado colgados de la silla detrás de la
pierna derecha, adecuado para la mano derecha.
(2) Cataphractarius of Ala
Firma catafractaria, army of Maximinus Thrax; Germania, AD 235
Reconstructed from the stele
of the Saluda brothers, he has rich equipment from the Rhine area: a
Mainz-Heddernheim style helmet; bronze scale armour from Mainz; and highly
decorated greaves embossed with a representation of the god Mars, from Speyer.
His weapons and related fittings (spatha, baldric, contus) are copied from
finds around Mainz, Nydam, and the Vimose bogs, where a lot of captured Roman
equipment relating to the campaigns of Severus Alexander and Maximinus was
found. The armour of his horse has been reconstructed from the lesserknown
third trapper found in Dura Europos, made of copper-alloy scales, although the
prometopidion (chamfron) is from Heddernheim. Under it the horse wears the
equine harness from Nydam, including a brown leather muzzle with a bronze boss
and fastened with bridle-chains to the rings of the bit.
(2) Cataphractarius del Ala Firma catafractaria, ejército de Maximino
el Tracio, Germania, 235
Reconstruido de la estela de
los hermanos Saluda, tiene un equipo rico propio de la del Rhin: un casco de
estilo Mainz-Heddernhelm, armadura de escamas de bronce de Mainz; y grebas muy
decoradas grabadas con una representación del dios Marte, de Speyer. Sus armas
y adornos relacionados (spatha, tahalí, contus) están copiados de hallazgos en
la zona de Mainz, Nydam y os pantanos de
Vimose, donde fue hallado un montón de equipo romano capturado relacionado con
las campañas de Severo Alejandro y de Maximino. La armadura de su caballo ha
sido reconstruida del menos conocido tercer jaez-arreos encontrados en Dura
Europos, hechos de escamas de aleación de cobre, aunque la prometopidion
(testera) es de Hedderheim. Bajo ellos el caballo usa un arnés equino de Nydan,
incluyendo un muzzle de cuero castaño con un umbo de bronce y sujeto con unas
bridas formadas por cadenas a los anillos del bocado.
(3) Clibanarius of a Numerus
Palmyrenorum; Dura Europos, mid-3rd century AD
This ‘super-heavy’
cavalryman is reconstructed from the famous clibanarius graffito at Dura
Europos (Tower 17). Note his conical mask helmet, and laminated armour covering
torso, legs and arms. The limb defences consisted mainly of plates overlapping
upwards, as required to throw off enemy spears running up the left arm,
unprotected by a shield. Composite scale-and-plate armour similar to Iranian or
Palmyrene models, as portrayed in the graffito, covers the trunk. Thigh
protection was often associated with greaves, and was found at Dura made of
copper alloy and lined with linen. His mount is stronger than the usual Arab
breeds, and is protected by the iron-scale trapper – described in the text as
number (2) – found at Dura.
(3) Cibanario
de un Numerus Palmyrenorum, Dura Europos, mediados del siglo III
Este jinete “superpesado” está
reconstruido a partir del famoso graffito del clibanario en Dura Europos (Tower
17). Obsérvese su casco cónico con visera, y su armadura laminada cubriendo el
torso, las piernas y los brazos. Las defensas de los miembros consistían
principalmente en láminas solapadas hacia arriba, …
desprotegido por la falta de escudo. La armadura
compuesta de escamas y láminas parecida a modelos iranios o de Palmira, como la
retratada en el graffito, cubre el tronco. La protección de los muslos a menudo
estaba asociada a las grebas, y se encontraron en Dura hechas de aleación de
cobre y forradas con lino. Su montura es más fuerte que las razas árabes
habituales, y está protegido por los jaeces de escamas de hierro –descritas en
el texto como número (2)- encontradas en Dura.
Second
Half of the 3rd Century AD
(1)
Roman clibanarius, Dura Europos, AD 256
Reconstructed
after the finds from Dura, he and his mount are fully armoured in iron and
bronze (copper alloy). The openmasked helmet of Heddernheim typology, whose
fragments were found at Dura, is a very rare variant with double protones in
the form of eagles; it finds parallels only in a similar helmet formerly in the
Axel Guttman collection, and on late Roman coins. The iron ringmail shirt shows
rows of bronze rings trimming the ends of the sleeves and the skirt, and is
worn in combination with an articulated arm-guard (galerus) of laminated iron
plates. Each thigh is protected with a redlacquered leather παραμηρίδιος
(thigh-guard) as found in Dura; this had provision for laces to be fastened
around the thigh, and extended from the waist to below the knee, below which
the man wears bronze greaves. His main weapon is again the contus, this time carried
without a shield, and for close work a mace is slung from the saddle.
(2)
Draconarius of an Ala cataphractariorum; army of Galerius, late 3nd century
This
standard-bearer is reconstructed from the Arch of Galerius. The equipment of
the catafractarii on this monument shows the employment of both ‘ridge’ and
segmented helmets, typologically similar to specimens from Kipchak and
Kabardino-Balkarie. The lamellar copper-alloy cuirass incorporates decorated
iron plates fastening it on the chest, and is worn over a padded thoracomacus
furnished with two layers of thick pteryges. Note the employment of high boots,
the Egyptianmade tunic decorated with three sleeve stripes (loroi), and the military
sagum cloak. His draco is copied from the Niederbieber specimen; the Arch of
Galerius carvings represent this standard carried by cataphracts charging
against the Persians.
(3)
Roman cataphractarius of Ala I Iovia cataphractaria; Nubian borders, AD 295
Reconstruction
from the Roman statue today in the Museum of Nubia at Aswan, which probably
represents a trooper of this unit created by Diocletian (r. 284−305) and
stationed to safeguard the provincial borders of Aegyptus. The squamae covering
his body, arms and legs echo the armour of the Rhoxolani heavy cavalry depicted
on Trajan’s Column. The statue is headless; we have given him a spangenhelm
from Egypt today preserved at Leiden Museum, correctly reconstructed here with
the original nasal guard. The magnificent harness of his horse is taken from
the Late Roman horse trappings of the Ballana graves, contemporary to the Dominate
period.
First
Half of the 4th Century AD
(1)
Cataphractarius Valerius Maxantius
Valerius
is reconstructed after his funerary monument, which describes him as an
‘eq(ues) ex numero kata(fractariorum)’. He represents one of the heavy
cavalrymen formerly serving under Maxentius who, after Constantine’s victory,
were sent to patrol the north-eastern frontiers of the Empire. A strong Sarmatian
influence is visible in the scale armour, the padded long-sleeved under-armour
garment, and the boots, diffused among the Roman cavalry since the 2nd century.
His primary weapon is the contus, but he also wears a long spatha of Iranian
origin, copied with its belt from the precious specimen in the Újlak Bécsi út
grave near Aquincum (Budapest) in Pannonia. He carries a ridge-helmet of the
new typology introduced into the Roman Army during the Tetrarchy, and wears a
galericulum to absorb its weight and the force of blows to the head.
(2)
Centenarius Klaudianus Ingenuus of Numerus equitum catafractariorum seniorum;
Lugdunum, Gallia, c. AD 325−350
This
is copied from his stele, but its date is debatable, and perhaps as late as the
early 5th century. The hybrid pseudo-Attic ridge-helmet with its high crest
shows a red-orange plume, which is confirmed for the late Roman heavy cavalry
by a later mosaic at Santa Maria Maggiore. The other metallic parts of his
equipment are the lorica squamata and greaves, which are worn over leather
protection and boots, respectively. On his forearms note the decoration of his
embroidered túnica manicata, and his long cavalry sagum cloak has a fringed
edge. According to his gravestone his two calones (military servants) had a
javelin, a shield and a short sword.
(3)
Draconarius of Numerus equitum catafractariorum seniorum
The
paintings in the Via Latina catacombs, contemporary to the triumphal procession
of Constantius II in Rome, are an often-neglected source illustrating Roman
cataphracts. They show the use of old typologies of masked helmets, and the wearing
of the thorax stadios muscled cuirass (also attested among the Persian Sassanid
clibanarii, recalling traditional links with the Greco-Roman world). Ammianus
describes the draco standards carried in Constantius’ procession (this one copied
from a specimen found at Carnuntum in Pannonia Superior) as having shafts encrusted
with precious stones: ‘he was surrounded by dragons, woven out of purple thread
and bound to the golden and jewelled shafts of spears (dracones hastarum aureis
gemmatisque summitatibus inligati)’.
Second
Half of the 4th Century AD
(1)
Catafractarius, battle of Argentoratum, AD 357
The
heavy cavalrymen painted in the catacombs of Dino Compagni (Via Latina), from which
we reconstruct this mailed rider, still show at the time of Constantius II and
Julian the use of old types of masked helmets with eagle protomes, of the Heddernheim
or (as here) Vechten types. Interestingly, this man carries javelins with barbed
heads, which are represented on some stelae of catafractarii, like that of
Klaudianus. Catafractarii, in contrast to clibanarii, are often represented with
the wide shield of the scutarii.
(2)
Clibanarius of Vexillatio equitum catafractariorum clibanoriorum; Claudiopolis,
c. AD 350
We
are able to reconstruct quite a good image of richlyequipped cataphractarii and
clibanarii from iconography together with descriptions in the sources (Pan. IV,
22; Amm. Marc. XVI, 10, 8; Jul. Imp., Or. in Constantii Laudem, I, 37ff ). The predilection
of Constantius II for such troops is attested by the numerous regiments raised
by him, and quoted in his funerary oration pronounced by Julian. The
reconstruction is based partially on the Dura Europos material, but note the
ridgehelmet prefiguring the famous 7th-century Sutton Hoo
Germanic
specimen; this fits well with a description of clibanarii wearing face-mask
helmets (‘personati’). Claudian, in his Panegyrics, describes the distinctions
of the armoured cavalrymen of the Imperial retinue: sashes around the waist, peacock
feathers on the helmet, and gilded and silvered cuirasses and shoulder-guards.
Iconography attests the use of the old-style Roman ‘four-horn’ saddle at least
into the first
half
of the 5th century.
(3)
Clibanarius of Schola scutariorum clibanariorum; Constantinople, AD 380
For
this man we have used a specimen of heavy cavalry helmet of ridge type, and a
blazon for his small shield copied from the Notitia Dignitatum (in which the
heavy cavalry’s use of battle-axes is also attested). The striking appearance
of the clibanarius is noted by Claudian describing the army in Constantinople
on 27 November AD 395: ‘It is as though iron statues moved, and men lived cast
from that same metal’. On that occasion he mentions plumed helmets (cristato
vertice), and armour of flexible scales or laminae fitted to the limbs (conjuncta
per artem flexilis inductis animatur lamina membris).
The
West, 5th Century AD
(1)
Catafractarius of the Comites Alani; Mediolanum, Gallia, AD 430
The
cavalryman is reconstructed from Romano-Sarmatian archaeology in Gallia and
northern Italia, also incorporating elements from Pontic finds. These units served
under the Magister Militum in Italy, according to the Notitia Dignitatum, which
gives us their shield blazon. The man is armoured with bronze squamae of Roman
typology, and armed with the contus and long Pontic sword; a specimen of the
latter is decorated in the cloisonné style of Constantinople fabrica. Hidden
here on the far side of his saddlery is a composite bow and quiver of arrows.
The Alani reportedly used the flayed skins of their slain enemies to make horse
trappers, and the faces were hung from the horse’s antilena. This rider is
using the new type of nomad-style saddle with raised saddlebows front and rear
in place of the old four pommels.
(2)
Clibanarius of Galla Placidia’s buccellarii, c. AD 425–450
Bucellarii
were personal units raised by an individual rather than the state; the
politically active Galla Placidia was the daughter of Theodosius I (r. 379–395),
and acted as regent for Valentinian III from 423 to 437. The cavalryman is
largely copied from the mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore. Besides a cuirass of
iron lamellae he wears an early example of ‘splint’ armour on his exposed right
arm; similar armour has been found in Abkhazian graves of the 5th century,
where warriors
were
buried with Eastern Roman military equipment. Such specimens have long splints
on the outer arm and shorter ones partially covering the inside, over a leather
support fastened with buckles; below them and attached by two large rings are
hand-protectors of ringmail. Padded leg protection of felt and coarse silk covers
the legs down to the shoes, fastened behind with laces and buckled straps.
(3)
Clibanarius of Equites clibanarii; Cirta, AD 400
This
trooper is equipped for training. A mosaic at Cirta (Constantine, Algeria) shows
cavalrymen of the Western Empire training with javelins and riding caparisoned
horses (see Osprey Campaigns 84, Adrianople AD 378, p. 6. Man and horse are
protected with quilted armour of an organic material, in the rider’s case
probably corresponding to the thoracomacus worn under the heavy armour of the
clibanarius. The vestitus equi of his mount may, by contrast, be actual war gear,
comparable to those represented on the lost Column of Arcadius and Theodosius.
If made with felt padding this kind of caparison would give protection against
low-velocity, longrange missiles.
The
East, 5th Century AD
(1)
Cataphractarius of Schola scutariorum secunda or Schola armaturarum seniorum,
AD 400
The
fragments of the lost Column of Arcadius and Theodosius, and the
Renaissance-period Freshfields drawings of it, show the lavish equipment of
Eastern Roman cavalrymen of the Imperial Guard. Shield blazons engraved on the
Column pedestal confirm the presence of the cavalry Scholae Palatinae and Domestici
Protectores on the battlefield, armoured with ‘muscle’ cuirasses in metal or
leather, and laminated limb armour over ringmail. Claudianus describes the
Eastern Roman cataphracts wearing helmets with peacock-feather plumes, and wide
red sashes around the body, as signs of their status or unit. Masked helmets
with human faces (personati) were still employed by cavalrymen, often decorated
in red leather; the Column shows the use of both male and female masks. This
last example in Roman art of the use of masked helmets in battle is confirmed by
the almost contemporary specimen from Sisak. The written sources also mention
units of heavily armoured mounted archers, anticipating the further evolution
of the Roman heavy cavalry in the 6th century.
(2)
Catafractarius of the Equites catafractarii Albigenses, AD 400–425
This
man is reconstructed from the grave of a cavalryman found on a Balkan
battlefield with all his armour. Besides a ridge-helmet, he is protected by a
ringmail lorikion, laminated armour on his arms, and thigh protection above his
greaves. Apart from the contus, he is armed with a long spatha.
(3)
Leontoclibanarius; Aegyptus, AD 450–500
This
Egyptian cavalryman has a helmet of Romano-Sassanian style, fitted with a mail
hood aventail which leaves only the eyes uncovered. He wears on his neck and
upper breast an early example of scale peritrachìlion, and below this his trunk
is covered with a combination of ringmail and scales recalling Iranian styles. Again,
his limbs are protected by articulated plates. His weapons again include a
battleaxe. Dtinsis (see Bibliography, under Diethart) suggests that the unit’s
symbol was a leonine motif which the Notitia Dignitatum shows, perhaps on a
small cheiroskoutarion shield. The horse’s neck and forequarters only are
armoured partly with bronze scales and partly with padded material
(κέντουκλον). Note the chamfron in felt with metallic appliqué, copied from a
unique specimen in the Berlin Museum.
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