lunes, 7 de febrero de 2011

El imperio bizantino









Heraclius the younger is proclaimed as Imperator of the Romans by Priscus, the patriarch Sergius I, and the faction of the Greens. Previously he had rebelled (with his father Heraclius the elder) against the usurper Phokas who had killed Emperor Maurice. The empire was in dire need for a good ruler ( the Persians had overrun the East and the Balkans was pillaged by the slavs) and Heraclius will prove himself as a capable ruler and commander.







Nómadas ávaros (siglos VII y VIII)





This depiction offers us a view into Constantinople. You can see the famous bronze quadriga looted during the Fourth Crusade, the so-called Horses of St. Mark in Venice, in their original placement on the entry to the hippodrome. In the top left area you can see the Hagia Sophia along with the Column of Justinian. The top right is the Baths of Zeuxippos.




Pre modern life was not the most sanitary. The 12th century scholar Tzetzes, who lived in Constantinople, recorded an issue he had with his upstairs neighbors. Having problematic upstairs neighbors on one hand sounds modern, on the other when you hear the issue it is not. From A Cabinet of Byzantine Curiosities by Anthony Kaldellis: “On the floor above him there lived a priest with ‘more children the Priam’ (Priam was King of Troy with 50 sons and many daughters). Along with the children they also kept pigs. The children and pigs produced ‘rivers of urine on which ships might sail.’ Tzetzes was reminded of ‘the horses of Xerxes, which drank so much that they dried up the rivers; but the priests brood and pigs did the opposite. And if it happened to rain at the same time...’ Tzetzes pleases with his landlord to install gutters or thick tile plumbing that would direct these rivers away from his front door.” Constantinople was advanced enough there were solutions to these issues like gutters or plumbing, but clearly they weren’t universal. So I imagine in many areas of the dense urban city that there was quite a smell. I doubt the crowded areas where masses of poorer citizens lived were much more sanitary than what was in Western Europe. One thing I find interesting is it seems rather like the urban life of antiquity, with multi story apartments and a huge population. But it was the 12th century. And yet this city and its history is left out of so many curriculums.






Procopius highlights something which Belisarius deserves praise for when he returned Carthage to Roman rule. Of course his tactics during the war are great and well-respected, but he also knew that the Romans had to be seen as the good guys by the people to achieve the Empire’s goals

People may feel positive the Romans are back in control, unless those soldiers go around stealing and hurting people. It is very hard to control armies during the capture of a city, but Belisarius managed to do it.

Procopius says that “Roman soldiers were not accustomed to enter a subject city without confusion…especially if they made the entry unexpectedly, this general(Belisarius) kept all the soldiers under his command in line so that there was not a single act of insolence or threat. In a captured city, then, that had changed its regime and joined a different kingdom, it came about that no man’s household was excluded from the marketplace. The clerks drew up their lists of the soldiers and conducted them to their lodgings, just as usual, and they obtained their lunch by purchase from the market, as each one wanted, and they were quiet.”

Belisarius knew that had if he lost control of his soldiers and looted Carthage that would only feed anti-Roman sentiment and give the Vandals support in their resistance, they had to behave as liberators not conquerors.




The village economy was important in pretty much all pre-modern societies. Urbanization obviously varied, being higher in prevalence in for example Ancient Rome or the Hellenistic age rather than the medieval period, but local agriculture was the basis of the economy throughout. In ‘The Byzantine Economy’ by Angeliki Laiou and Cecile Morrisson this is explained in its Byzantine village context - “Usually, land exploitation was carried out in concentric zones around the village. Irrigated vegetable gardens and orchards were cultivated near the inhabited nucleus, while dry land tilled for cereals, vineyards, or textile plants like hemp lay a bit gutter away: since it sometimes took oxen as long as 3 hours to reach them, their cultivation was less intensive and involved less frequent ploughing. Grazing lands and woodlands were situated in the the most remote locations.” This is just a general template of course, as regions varied, but generally agricultural zones were organized with the most time and energy consuming things closest to the village. Of course it’s great to fantasize about the busy streets of Constantinople or even Thessaloniki but the daily life of most medieval Romans looked more agricultural and based in small towns and villages. A lot of Byzantines cities were not huge especially after the Arab and Slavic invasions.

























El saqueo de Constantinopla por la Cuarta Cruzada (1204)


Los bizantinos contra los turcos otomanos (siglo XV)


Constantino XI lucha hasta la muerte al final del asedio de Constantinopla (1453)



One of the things I find the most intriguing are the Byzantine automata said to be in the Magnaura throne room. Automata were mechanical devices which included the Throne of Solomon, a golden tree with mechanical birds, mechanical lions, and organs. The birds could sing and move on the tree. The lions which were near the throne could rise up, roar, and then sit. This made quite an impression on visitors. The lions were used at just the right moments in line with the Emperor. Perhaps that could mean if he made a demand to a visitor or got angry then the lions could move and roar. This was especially effective on barbarian leaders who were not accustomed to such technology. Lions also had an association with Solomon, as there were lions flanking his throne in the Old Testament of the Bible. The sounds made by these automata were created by pneumatic-hydraulic devices, similar to those described in Ancient Greek texts. Liudprand of Cremoma, a Lombard from Italy, visited Constantinople in 957 and attests to see the automata. He said he been warned, but when he prostrated before Constantine VII he was surprised to look back up and see the Emperor’s throne high in the air and with a new set of clothes. Liutprand wrote that he thought maybe there was a pulley for the throne, but he did not know how it worked. The automata eventually fade from history so perhaps they lost the technology or no longer felt it was worth the money to maintain them. They were probably originally invented by Leo the Mathematician, a brilliant 9th century scholar and product of the Macedonian Renaissance who clearly had been consulting ancient texts.



Yo, César: Constantino

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuxoujQC-3g

La construcción de un imperio. Los bizantinos

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EaESdgNXn8 


El imperio bizantino según Lucas Notaras

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lKA_YJpJDIc

Metrópolis: Constantinopla, 1437

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8gdo59xV2E

La guerra santa 3: Los turcos a las puertas de Viena

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pp7URzbd8RU


En el dibujo vemos la forma en que solían ser proclamados los basileus durante la etapa de apogeo de Bizancio (867-1081); un grupo de soldados lo levantaba sobre un escudo para señalar el apoyo del ejército.

El basileus lleva como signo de su cargo la corona con una cruz, una lanza y ropa de gala. Al fondo los soldados golpean sus escudos con sus lanzas y espadas indicando su conformidad con la elección del nuevo emperador.

ILUSTRACIÓN: IMAGEN DEVIANART DEL AUTOR QU E IMITA A HERMANN USANDO MODELOS OSPREY


INTRODUCCIÓN
El imperio bizantino fue un estado que duró toda la Edad Media, del 476 al 1453. Su importancia deriva de varios factores:
Conservó la cultura griega y romana evitando que se perdiera ante las distintas invasiones bárbaras.
A través de la religión cristiana ortodoxa y del alfabeto cirílico integró en Europa a los pueblos eslavos que hoy son los estados de Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Ucrania, Rusia...
Sirvió como muralla de defensa a Europa contra las invasiones musulmanas dando así su carácter cristiano a la cultura europea.

POLÍTICA
El estado bizantino estaba gobernado por un emperador (llamado en griego basileus) que tenía todo el poder. Su palabra era la ley y para que ésta se cumpliera tenía bajo su mando un ejército profesional formado por mercenarios bien equipados y entrenados. El dinero para mantener a estas tropas lo obtenía el emperador de los impuestos que se pagaban en todos sus territorios. Estos tributos servían también para mantener una diplomacia y una administración.
Parte del éxito de Bizancio, que fue existir unos mil años, se debe a la capacidad de su diplomacia para convencer, engañar, asombrar, manipular, sobornar, en definitiva conseguir lo que fuese de los distintos pueblos vecinos que tuvieron los bizantinos a lo largo de su historia.
La administración del imperio estaba formada por un grupo de funcionarios que se encargaban de anotar el número de habitantes de una ciudad, la cantidad de tierra que poseía cada hombre, el número de personas que pertenecía a tal o cual grupo étnico..., todos estos datos servían al final para conseguir que la mayoría de los habitantes del imperio pagasen sus impuestos.

ECONOMÍA
Como en todas las tierras del mundo en esa época la base de la economía bizantina era la agricultura. La mayoría de las personas eran campesinos y la mayor parte de la producción económica, es decir de la riqueza, estaba formada por productos agropecuarios (agrícolas y ganaderos), o sea por trigo, cebada, centeno, carne de vaca, cerdo, oveja, cueros, huevos, lana, lino y todas esas cosas.
Sin embargo, al contrario que en Europa occidental, donde casi era lo único que existía, en el Imperio Bizantino también había abundancia de talleres artesanales donde se fabricaban vestidos, joyas, objetos preciosos, herramientas... La riqueza agropecuaria e industrial se veía aumentada por un activo comercio que, a través del mar Mediterráneo oriental, del mar Negro y de las antiguas vías terrestres romanas, permitía intercambiar productos y objetos de las distintas zonas del imperio y con sus países vecinos, lo que explica que en Bizancio se usasen habitualmente las monedas de oro como medio de pago (de ahí que en Europa occidental las monedas de oro se llamasen "besantes" = byzantios, es decir bizantinos).

SOCIEDAD
La sociedad bizantina era una sociedad desigual como todas las medievales. Mandando sobre el conjunto de la sociedad se hallaba el basileus. Por debajo del mismo se encontraban los altos cargos eclesiásticos (patriarcas, obispos...) y los grandes terratenientes que tenían en común con los anteriores su riqueza en tierras. Luego estaban los comerciantes y artesanos de las ciudades y la gran masa de la población formada por campesinos dueños de poca tierra o trabajadores de tierras ajenas. Fuera del conjunto de los hombres libres se hallaban los esclavos, que cada vez eran menos, y los extranjeros que vivían en el imperio, que lo eran por su religión, o sea los judíos, los musulmanes y los cristianos occidentales o latinos.

ETAPAS HISTÓRICAS DEL IMPERIO BIZANTINO

1. 476-610, Imperio Romano de Oriente o periodo inicial de Bizancio.
En esta época el Imperio romano oriental sobrevive a las invasiones bárbaras mientras el Imperio romano occidental es destruido y, en su lugar, surgen los reinos romano-germánicos. Con el emperador Justiniano I (527-565) se recuperan parte de los territorios perdidos (Norte de África, Italia...) y se reafirma la herencia de Roma.

2. 610-867, periodo de repliegue de Bizancio.
Esta etapa comienza con el reinado del emperador Heraclio I (610-641) que convierte al griego, la lengua común de los bizantinos, en el idioma oficial del imperio, convirtiéndose en el primer basileus ("rey" en griego). Heraclio I derrota a los persas sasánidas, enemigos tradicionales de Roma, pero su victoria cuesta mucho dinero y desgasta al estado bizantino, así que cuando los árabes musulmanes ataquen por el Sur los debilitados bizantinos perderán sus provincias más ricas (Siria, Egipto... ).
Como respuesta al avance islámico se crea el sistema militar de los themas, regiones militares donde los campesinos tienen suficientes tierras para obtener dinero con que armarse para servir como soldados.
Junto a los ataques árabes se producirán incursiones sucesivas de ávaros y búlgaros en los Balcanes.
Las destrucciones provocarán una crisis económica y un retroceso del comercio. Para terminar de complicar la situación se produce una crisis dentro del imperio pues campesinos y soldados de las provincias orientales se oponen al culto que se da a los iconos (imágenes de la Virgen, de los santos....) frente a los monjes y nobles, sobre todo de la parte occidental del imperio, favorables a esta adoración. La crisis iconoclasta producirá rebeliones y luchas civiles que debilitarán a Bizancio mientras en Europa occidental surge el Imperio carolingio de los francos que desafiará la pretensión de Constantinopla de ser la única heredera del Imperio romano.

3. 867-1081, periodo de apogeo de Bizancio.
Con la dinastía macedónica el imperio bizantino va a extender sus fronteras por el Sur de Italia, avanzar más allá de los montes Tauro en Anatolia, y dominar a los búlgaros y pueblos eslavos hasta el río Danubio. El basileus más famoso será Basilio II (963-1025) apodado bulgaróctonos (el matador de búlgaros). En esta época la iglesia occidental o latina y la oriental o griega se separaron definitivamente con el Cisma de Oriente (1054). La fuerza y la riqueza de Bizancio, centro otra vez de rutas comerciales a larga distancia, contrasta con la debilidad de la Europa occidental y central sometida a las Segundas Invasiones. Esta etapa gloriosa se cerrará con dos derrotas. En 1071, en la batalla de Mantzikert, los turcos selyúcidas derrotarán y matarán al basileus invadiendo a continuación la península de Anatolia. El mismo año mercenarios normandos arrebatan Bari a los bizantinos y los expulsan del sur de Italia.

4. 1081-1261, periodo de "occidentalización" y del imperio de Nicea.
Esta época se caracteriza por un intenso contacto de Bizancio con los cristianos occidentales o latinos que, a causa de las Cruzadas, se hacen presentes en toda la cuenca oriental del Mediterráneo. Así los venecianos irán apoderándose de las antiguas rutas comerciales bizantinas mientras la nobleza latifundista, como pasaba en la Europa feudal, crecía en importancia y poder. Este contacto entre los bizantinos y los "francos" (nombre que se daba a todos los cristianos latinos) a veces fue amistoso pero acabó siendo violento y culminó con el saqueo y ocupación de Constantinopla en 1204 por la Cuarta Cruzada. Los bizantinos huidos rehicieron un imperio con capital en Nicea, y crearon en la región de Epiro y en torno a la ciudad de Trebisonda otros puntos de resistencia, hasta que en 1261 recuperaron su antigua capital.

5. 1261-1453, periodo de decadencia y final de Bizancio.

Esta etapa se caracterizó por una crisis económica permanente debido al monopolio de las rutas comerciales por los mercaderes italianos (venecianos y genoveses) y a la constante pérdida de territorios y población. Además la dinastía de los Paleólogos se enzarzó en numerosas guerras civiles mientras los distintos vecinos del Imperio Bizantino lo acosaban, en especial los turcos otomanos que a lo largo de 150 años fueron absorbiendo las antiguas posesiones imperiales hasta que en 1453 conquistaron la vieja Constantinopla y la rebautizaron como Estambul.

1.       ¿Qué significa el título de basileus? (1 punto)
2.       ¿Además de en la agricultura y en la ganadería, en que otras actividades se basaba la riqueza de Bizancio? Explícalas. (1 punto)
3.       ¿Con qué emperador empieza la etapa de repliegue de Bizancio? (1 punto)
4.       ¿Qué eran los themas? (1 punto)
5.       ¿Qué emperador fue apodado Bulgaróctonos (el matador de búlgaros)? (1 punto)
6.       ¿Cuándo sucedió el Cisma de Oriente que separó a la iglesia occidental de la oriental? (1 punto)
7.       ¿Quiénes eran los “francos” para los bizantinos? (1 punto)
8.       ¿Quiénes conquistaron Constantinopla y le cambiaron su nombre a Estambul? (1 punto)
9.       Explica la sociedad bizantina. (1 punto)

10.     ¿Qué era un “besante”? (1 punto)

¿Qué instrumento tenía el emperador bizantino para que se cumplieran sus órdenes?

¿Cuál era la base de la economía bizantina?

¿Qué es un besante?

¿Cuál era la religión principal en el imperio bizantino?

¿Quiénes eran los extranjeros dentro del imperio bizantino?

¿Qué significa basileus?

¿Qué emperador convirtió al griego en lengua oficial del imperio bizantino?

¿Qué son los iconos?

¿Qué eran los themas?

¿Qué significa el apodo bulgaróctonos de Basilio II? ¿En que etapa del imperio vivió este basileus?

¿Qué pasó en 1071 en la batalla de Manzikert?

¿Cuándo fue saqueada Constantinopla por los cristianos latinos u occidentales?

¿Cuál fue la última dinastía bizantina?

¿Cómo sucedió el Cisma de Oriente?

¿Cuántos años duró cada etapa de la historia del imperio bizantino? ¿Cuál de las cinco etapas duró más? ¿Cuántos años duró en total el imperio de Bizancio?

¿Quiénes eran los “francos”?

¿Cómo era proclamado un basileus durante la etapa de apogeo de Bizancio?

¿Cuántos de los tres soldados llevan espada? ¿Cuántos llevan escudo? ¿Cuántos llevan casco? ¿Cuál de los tres soldados está mejor armado? ¿Por qué?



Logros de la mujer romana oriental "bizantina".

Ilustración de Gambargin
Texto de Koldo Gondra 




Catalan Company Part 2: If you missed part 1, it would be of value to check it out before reading this. After agreeing with Emperor Andronikos II to conquer lands in Anatolia for himself as payment, the Catalan leader Roger de Flor went to Adrianople to meet with the Emperor’s son Michael IX. The junior Emperor Michael had an army guarding the city against the Bulgarians. He did not agree with Andronikos appeasing the Catalans and bankrupting the Empire. Michael took matters into his own hands, he had an Alan mercenary stab an unsuspecting Roger de Flor to death on April 30, 1305. He then had Roger’s escorts massacred. Some would see this as Byzantine treachery, I see it as a response to the Catalans abuse of power/extortion of the Empire. The Catalan Company was outraged and they slaughtered the Byzantine population of Gallipolis and terrorized the Thracian countryside. The Bulgarians then invaded during the chaos and seized some territory. Alan mercenaries joined the looting and further terrorized the Greek population of Thrace. Michael was defeated three times trying to stop the Catalan Company. As Thrace was in anarchy the Genoese stole Chios, Smyrna, and other port cities and islands knowing the Byzantine Empire with no real navy could do nothing to stop them. Riots then broke out against Andronikos in Constantinople. The Turks renewed their attacks on Byzantine cities in Anatolia. It really seemed like the Empire could dissolve in this moment. A famine broke out in Thrace as so many farms were attacked, but this actually forced the Catalans to leave. Talk of a new crusade against Constantinople was even backed by the Pope Clement V. The Catalans could not take Thessaloniki and moved onto Thessaly, before being pushed out. The Catalans then conquered the crusader Duchy of Athens, ending their rampage. The crusade plan failed, offering a much needed break for Byzantium. Andronikos’ plan to disband the navy and use the Catalan company backfired. This was one of the major reasons the Empire was doomed in the 14th century, along with the civil wars between Andronikos II and Andronikos III, as well as the civil wars involving John Kantakouzenos.




When Constantine founded his new capital he lavished it with decorations, churches, and new public buildings. One of the most important areas in the city until 1204 was the Forum of Constantine. A forum was essentially an agora, a public open area for commerce. According to Zosimos it was built at the location of the gate of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium which had gave way to Constantine's new city. It was a circular forum, with the perimeter surrounded by a two story colonnade. At the center stood the Column of Constantine, which still survives today in it's diminished form. It was built to commemorate the city's founding in 330AD. The column originally had a pagan inspired statue of Constantine, which fell off during the 12th century and was replaced by Manuel Komnenos with a cross. The ground of the forum was paved in Prokonessian marble. The original senate complex also could have been entered through the Forum. There was a nymphaion rich with statues on one side of the forum as well. The forum had many statues in the middle spaced around the column as well, such as a famous statue of Athena that could of been the Parthenos or a statue from Rhodes. Statues depicting the judgment of Paris, Thetis, as well as many other statues that are harder to identify such as an elephant, statues of Constantine and his sons as well as his mother Helena, two female statues of "the Roman" and "the Hungarian" adorned the forum. It is clear the statues were quite numerous and surely it was a unique site in the medieval world, adding to the feel of Constantinople as nearly a medieval museum. The forum remained intact until 1203 when fires set by crusaders raged through the city, though perhaps the senate house was dilapidated before that. The central areas statues and column survived the fire but when the city fell in 1204 the priceless bronze works were tragically and barbarically melted down to make low value currency by the crusaders. A relic of antiquity was then gone and the Forum of Constantine was not rebuilt after Constantinople was liberated in 1261.



The Chalke Gate (Bronze Gate) was a main ceremonial gate of the Great Palace of Constantinople. It was built by Justinian the Great. It was decorated with a famous icon of Christ, the Christ Chalkites. The outside had statues of the Four Gorgons from the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, Roman emperors such as Zeno and Maurice, among other works. The interior had mosaics of the emperor Justinian, his wife the empress Theodora, his famed general Belisarius, and some chosen Byzantine senators were depicted. Due to the conflict of iconoclasm the icon was torn down and restored a couple times depending on the theological views of the reigning emperor, until the religious conflict subsided. After 1200 the gate is no longer mentioned, and thus likely had fallen into ruins during the Latin occupation of Constantinople, as well as declining after the Great emperor Alexios Komnenos moved the imperial residence to the Blachernae palace. Visitors to the Great Palace would have been quite impressed when it was intact, and even in ruins. The Chalke chapel existed until 1804 in ruins, before being demolished. #romanreig














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