martes, 26 de julio de 2016
viernes, 22 de julio de 2016
La era de la estupidez (2009)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Stupid
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MCUB4gpNYuQ
Petróleo y gas natural en Nigeria, minuto 23
Imperialismo, minuto 28
Dibujos 34'50 energía barata
consumismo 40'30
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MCUB4gpNYuQ
Petróleo y gas natural en Nigeria, minuto 23
Imperialismo, minuto 28
Dibujos 34'50 energía barata
consumismo 40'30
Documental sobre Alejandro Magno y otros
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bgM1rAo8LkM La construcción de un imperio: Rusia
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JfGtfO9YvkE El Comunismo, historia de una ilusión
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JfGtfO9YvkE El Comunismo, historia de una ilusión
Command Decisions
Batalla de Maratón y Batalla de las Termópilas
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1fr_XV16T8
Batalla de los Campos Catalaúnicos y Batalla de Hastings (1066)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qntg_YONGUI
Batalla de Hastings (1066)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Bm_eT8N7eU
La batalla de Stalingrado (1942-1943)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=872CvgIEK6U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1fr_XV16T8
Batalla de los Campos Catalaúnicos y Batalla de Hastings (1066)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qntg_YONGUI
Batalla de Hastings (1066)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Bm_eT8N7eU
La batalla de Stalingrado (1942-1943)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=872CvgIEK6U
Trabajo sobre la Segunda Revolución Industrial del profesor Antonio López Heredia
Trabajo sobre II Revolución Industrial del profesor Antonio López Heredia
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=to9_B5fajxg
Stalin, el imperio del mal
Stalin, el imperio del mal
Stalin, el tirano rojo
BUSCAR EJERCICIOS-EXAMEN
miércoles, 20 de julio de 2016
Famine and starvation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%9345#End_of_the_famine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Starvation_Experiment
http://180degreehealth.com/the-concentration-camp-diet/
https://phdn.org/archives/www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/war_criminals.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Starvation_Experiment
http://180degreehealth.com/the-concentration-camp-diet/
https://phdn.org/archives/www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/war_criminals.htm
El texto siguiente está sacado de En el corazón del mar de Nathaniel Philbrick publicado por la editorial Seix Barral en Barcelona el año 2015.
La diarrea es un síntoma común de inanición. El cuerpo puede recuperarse con bastante rapidez de la deshidratación, pero tarda muchísimo en recuperarse de los efectos de la inanición.
Durante la segunda guerra mundial, el Laboratorio de Higiene Fisiológica de la Universidad de Minnesota llevó a cabo un estudio sobre la inanición que los científicos y los encargados de combatir las hambrunas todavía consideran un patrón de referencia.
El estudio tenía por objeto ayudar a los aliados a atender las necesidades de los prisioneros de guerra y de los refugiados. Todos los participantes eran objetores de conciencia que se prestaron voluntariamente a perder el 25 por ciento de su peso corporal en seis meses.
El experimento fue supervisado por el doctor Ancel Keys (de quien procede la denominación "ración K"). Aunque eran escasas, las raciones de los voluntarios cuidadosamente medidas de patatas, nabos, colinabos, pan moreno y macarrones (parecidas al tipo de alimentos que los refugiados podían encontrar durante la guerra) poseían una gran variedad de vitaminas y minerales. Pese a que el experimento se llevó a cabo en circunstancias clínicamente seguras, los voluntarios sufrieron graves angustias fisiológicas y psicológicas.
A medida que fueron perdiendo peso, los hombres se volvieron letárgicos tanto en cuerpo como en espíritu. Cada vez se mostraban más irritables. Les resultaba difícil concentrarse. Les horrorizaba su falta de fuerza física y de coordinación, y muchos sufrían desvanecimientos cuando se levantaban rápidamente. Se les hincharon las extremidades. Perdieron el deseo sexual y, en su lugar, se entregaban a comentar sus platos preferidos con los demás y pasarse horas enfrascados en la lectura de libros de cocina. Se quejaban de haber perdido todo sentido de la iniciativa y la creatividad.
Para muchos de los hombres la parte más difícil del experimento fue el período de recuperación. Semanas después de aumentar su ingesta de alimentos, todavía sentían ansias de comer. En algunos casos, llegaron a perder peso durante la primera semana después de dejar la dieta de hambre.
Los teleñecos
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5e5P96oARik
Mana Mana
Mana Mana con Los minions
Mana Mana por Filippo Timi
lunes, 18 de julio de 2016
Demografía en la Edad Moderna siglo XVIII
La demografía en la Edad
Moderna
La demografía es el
estudio de la población, su cantidad y características. Durante la
Edad Moderna (del siglo XVI al siglo XVIII) la cantidad de habitantes
de un país estaba en relación directa con su riqueza y poder, pues
en una sociedad anterior a la mecanización mucha población era
mucha mano de obra disponible y mucha riqueza.
Antes del siglo XVIII toda
la Humanidad se ajustaba al régimen demográfico antiguo
caracterizado por una natalidad y una mortalidad elevadas.
Aunque la nobleza y la
realeza solían realizar matrimonios tempranos, la mayoría de la
población se casaba a los 25 o 30 años. Esto se debía a la
existencia de la familia extensa. El trabajo (agrícola y artesanal)
era tarea de la comunidad familiar formada por decenas de personas
que incluía padres, hijos, abuelos, tíos, primos, yernos, nueras.
Así que la edad en que alguien se independizaba de su familia para
crear una propia solía ser elevada.
Aunque el matrimonio era
tardío la experiencia solía repetirse pues eran comunes las viudas
y, sobre todo, los viudos.
La fecundidad femenina se
extendía desde los 25 hasta los 45 años aunque una mujer no podía
dar a luz más de siete u ocho veces, a causa de la prolongación de
la lactancia. Por ello la media de hijos nacidos por familia era de
cuatro o cinco, aunque solo dos o tres alcanzaban la edad del
matrimonio. De todos modos, a causa de la elevada natalidad, la mitad
de la población eran menores de 18 años.
De cada cien niños
nacidos el mismo año, 25 no cumplían un año, otros 25 morían
antes de los 20 y sólo la mitad superaban esa edad. A causa de lo
anterior la esperanza de vida al nacer era de 20 o 25 años. Un
hombre o una mujer a los 45 o 50 años eran viejos.
Las causas de una
mortalidad tan elevada eran una alimentación insuficiente, una
higiene escasa y la presencia de todo tipo de enfermedades.
La población solía
crecer con rapidez año a año hasta que se producía una crisis de
subsistencia o estallaba una epidemia y aquella se hundía
bruscamente.
En el siglo XVIII en
Inglaterra y alguna otra región se produce la llamada transición
demográfica, es decir el paso del régimen demográfico antiguo al
régimen demogáfico moderno.
La esperanza de vida al
nacer alcanza los 30 años, 40 para los burgueses, y aún más para
las minorías dirigentes.
En el siglo XVIII en
Europa la natalidad continuó siendo muy elevada pero empezó a
descender la mortalidad. Esto último se debió a una mejora en la
alimentación, lo que redujo las crisis de subsistencia ylas
epidemias. La dieta de los europeos mejoró gracias a la introducción
de las plantas americanas: la patata en Inglaterra, los estados
alemanesi
y Francia, y el maíz en España y los estados italianos.
La población creció en
el siglo XVIII en Europa de 120 a 187 millones de habitantes, siendo
los europeos un tercio de los habitantes del planeta. Aunque la mitad
de la Humanidad vivía en China (295 millones de habitantes en 1800)
e India (255 millones).
El crecimiento demográfico
en el siglo XVIII aumentó la población europea e hizo necesario
buscar soluciones para alimentar y ocupar a esas personas: se
pusieron en cultivo nuevas tierras, se intensificó la emigración
hacia América, se produjo éxodo rural, una parte de la mano de obra
excedente se integró en el domestic system (en Bohemia
-actual República Checa- 200.000 personas hilaban lino en sus
casas).
Algunos ejemplos del
crecimiento demográfico en el siglo XVIII (1701-1800) son
Inglaterra, que pasó de 5'5 a 9 millones de habitantes, los estados
italianos, que pasaron de 11'5 a 18, o Francia que pasó de 19 a 26.
iHablamos
de estados alemanes y de estados italianos para el siglo XVIII
porque, aunque existían los idiomas y culturas alemanes e
italianos, no existían ambos países ya que su territorio estaba
repartido entre decenas de estados.
4. Los recursos y la energía. Vicens Vives, 2016
PAGINA 66
1.4. Los humedales
Los humedales son uno de los ecosistemas más
ricos del mundo y están considerados espacios vitales para la supervivencia
humana. De sus terrenos inundados se obtienen alimentos, agua potable,
materiales de construcción o bioquímicos para medicamentos. Dan cobijo a miles
de aves migratorias, absorben los gases de efecto invernadero y en torno a
ellos se concentra la mayor parte de la biodiversidad mundial. Pero la
actividad de los humanos está acabando con ellos hasta la extinción.
Según los cálculos del Convenio de Ramsar, un
acuerdo internacional creado en 1971 para la protección de los humedales, casi
el 75 % de estos espacios ha desaparecido en los últimos cien años. Su
degradación, además, avanza a un ritmo del 1,5% anual, arrasando miles de
especies que se nutren de su entorno para sobrevivir. Durante muchos años los
humedales han sido vistos como espacios que no servían para nada. Eran sitios
donde la gente tiraba la basura o se secaban para favorecer las construcciones
o porque se consideraba que propiciaban enfermedades.
El concepto que se tiene de los humedales ha
mejorado en los últimos años, pero siguen sometidos a la fuerte presión
derivada de los cambios en los usos de suelo para la agricultura o el
urbanismo. La sobreexplotación de los acuíferos, la contaminación, las especies
invasoras o el cambio climático amenazan también su supervivencia.
El Convenio de Ramsar y los humedales
españoles
El convenio sobre los humedales, llamado
Convenio de Ramsar, es un tratado intergubernamental que sirve de marco para la
acción nacional y la cooperación internacional en pro de la conservación y el
uso racional de los humedales y sus recursos.
En España, al menos un 40% de los humedales
presenta un estado de conservación preocupante, entre ellos el Delta del Ebro
(Cataluña), los humedales lacustres de Ruidera y las Tablas de Daimiel (Castilla-La
Mancha), el humedal palustre de la Albufera de Valencia (Comunitat Valenciana),
y los marinos de Txingudi (País Vasco) y la Bahía de Cádiz (Andalucía), entre
otros.
España, desde que ratificó el Convenio de
Ramsar en 1982, ha ido protegiendo más humedales y actualmente tiene 74
catalogados en la lista Ramsar. Además de los ya citados, destacan Doñana, en
Andalucía, que presenta un extraordinario mosaico de ecosistemas que albergan
una biodiversidad única en Europa; su marisma es de gran importancia como lugar
de paso, cría y residencia de aves en la época invernal.
La Laguna de Gallocanta (Aragón), a 1000 m de
altitud, es el lago salino más grande de Europa y constituye un magnífico lugar
de invernada y paso para multitud de aves migratorias: cada octubre hacen
parada aquí 40.000 grullas procedentes del Norte de Europa.
Pág.67
2. EL AGUA, UN RECURSO ESCASO. POLÍTICAS
HIDRÁULICAS
Los dos usos del agua más importantes por el
volumen que requieren son: agrícolas y ganaderos, y urbanos e industriales.
2.1. El agua para usos agrícolas y ganaderos
Del total de agua disponible que existe en
España, el mayor porcentaje es para usos agrícolas y esta demanda se va
incrementando debido a la progresiva extensión de los regadíos. Hoy en día se
irriga aproximadamente el 14% de las tierras cultivadas, las cuales aportan el
50 % del valor de la producción agraria. Es evidente que el regadío aumenta la
productividad de la tierra, permitiendo una diversificación de cultivos, y mejora
el nivel de vida de los agricultores, al aumentar las rentas.
Sin embargo, el agua para usos agrícolas y
ganaderos plantea algunos problemas para la sostenibilidad de los recursos
hídricos; uno de ellos es la contaminación que causan por el uso de abonos
químicos, pesticidas y purines. Actualmente se ha prohibido el uso de productos
muy contaminantes y se tiende a controlar los vertidos de purines, parte de los
cuales se transforman en abonos. Para frenar el consumo de agua, los
agricultores reciben ayudas para transformar en riego por aspersión o por goteo
la modalidad tradicional de riego por inundación. También se puede evitar la pérdida
de agua manteniendo en buen estado los canales de riego y evitar regar a pleno
sol. En las huertas mediterráneas se recurre a la explotación de caudales subterráneos
mediante la extracción de agua por bombeo.
2.2. El agua para usos urbanos e industriales
Contrariamente a lo que se suele pensar, el
consumo de agua para usos urbanos e industriales presenta una demanda muy
inferior a la del consumo agrario. Algunas industrias precisan agua para sus
procesos de producción, como ocurre con la fabricación de papel o la industria
del cuero, pero la mayoría de ellas necesitan agua para los procesos de
refrigeración de su maquinaria o para la limpieza y la eliminación de residuos.
La provisión de agua para usos domésticos es
prioritaria y presenta elevadas exigencias de calidad porque debe ser potable.
El gasto europeo medio por persona y día es de 200 litros de agua, con elevadas
subidas durante la estación estival.
En España, los suministros domésticos y
urbanos suelen combinar aguas fluviales con aguas de los acuíferos. El
principal problema es la insuficiente garantía de abastecer a muchas ciudades
españolas, lo que puede provocar severas restricciones en épocas de sequía.
El crecimiento de urbanizaciones en las zonas
litorales mediterráneas y los complejos turísticos se han convertido en un
grave problema por el incremento del consumo de agua que se produce en verano.
Cuando hay más demanda es, precisamente, en la época del año en que hay menos
disponibilidad.
En la actualidad, el problema de
contaminación de las aguas por vertidos de aguas residuales urbanas e
industriales, y que convertía los ríos en cloacas, se ha corregido gracias al
control más estricto sobre los vertidos y, asimismo, la obligación de instalar depuradoras.
También se tiende a incentivar procesos de reaprovechamiento de aguas, que si
bien no son potables, son adecuadas para algunos procesos industriales, para el
regadío, para el mantenimiento y limpieza de zonas urbanas y para el riego, por
ejemplo, de los campos de golf.
2.3. Las políticas
hídricas
Las políticas
hídricas están orientadas a la obtención de agua. Cabe diferenciar entre las
políticas de trasvases, la desalinización de agua del mar, la recuperación de
los acuíferos y los planes de saneamiento de los ríos.
Las políticas de
trasvases
La desigual
distribución de los recursos hídricos ha planteado la política de trasvases, al
derivar agua de un río a otro. El abastecimiento de ciudades como Madrid,
Barcelona, Bilbao, Valencia, Murcia, Alicante, Sevilla o Cádiz dependen de
pequeños trasvases de aguas y de complejos sistemas de distribución.
Para llevar a cabo
grandes trasvases son necesarias obras hidráulicas. La conducción de agua a
gran distancia requiere costosos trabajos de ingeniería y de bombeo, y se
pierde mucha agua por evaporación.
Por otra parte, la
cesión de caudales de un río a otro puede producir cambios en los acuíferos,
limitaciones para ampliar el uso del agua en las cuencas fluviales de origen y,
también, variaciones en el aporte de sedimentos.
La desalinización del
agua del mar
Actualmente se busca
satisfacer la demanda de agua de las áreas deficitarias con plantas
desalinizadoras. Esta solución es costosa y su funcionamiento consume mucha
energía. Sin embargo, la técnica para desalinizar el agua de mar está
progresando mucho para abaratar sus costes y su consumo de energía, y el agua
que se obtiene es de buena calidad. En España funcionan plantas desalinizadoras
en las islas Canarias y Almería, y se están construyendo nuevas instalaciones a
lo largo de la costa mediterránea.
La recuperación de
los acuíferos
Las aguas
subterráneas se explotan a partir de la perforación de pozos y el bombeo de
agua. Este aprovechamiento ha sido muy intenso en las tierras mediterráneas,
para regar las huertas, y también en aquellas tierras que no cuentan con otro
recurso hídrico (Campo de Níjar, Maestrazgo, algunos lugares de La Mancha...).
La extracción de agua de los acuíferos no solo ha hecho disminuir su nivel,
también ha provocado la desecación total o parcial de áreas lacustres y
palustres.
En las áreas
litorales, el riesgo más grave es la salinización del agua de los acuíferos.
Para poder extraer agua dulce, las perforaciones han alcanzado a veces los 600
m de profundidad. La falta de presión del agua dulce rompe el equilibrio entre
la presión que ejerce ésta y el agua del mar, la cual penetra en los acuíferos
y provoca la salinización de los suelos.
La creciente
urbanización de la costa mediterránea y la agricultura y la ganadería
intensivas han favorecido la filtración de aguas residuales, purines y
productos químicos que corrompen la calidad del agua. Para resolver estos
problemas, actualmente se propone inyectar agua para recargar algunos acuíferos
y depurar las aguas que estos contienen.
domingo, 17 de julio de 2016
El Antiguo Régimen
El Antiguo Régimen
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=scTlzGgavr0
La sociedad del Antiguo Régimen en fragmentos de dos películas
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqM0ZKftKqg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=scTlzGgavr0
La sociedad del Antiguo Régimen en fragmentos de dos películas
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqM0ZKftKqg
Los Felices Años Veinte y el Crack del 29
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yu8eP7pfcAE
Ford
Chrysler
Wall Street= Bolsa de Nueva York= mercado de valores
aluvión
Aunque en el documental se usa la palabra crack lo más correcto es el Crash de 1929
harapientos
Central Park
Vocabulario del documental
electrificaciónFord
Chrysler
Wall Street= Bolsa de Nueva York= mercado de valores
aluvión
Aunque en el documental se usa la palabra crack lo más correcto es el Crash de 1929
harapientos
Central Park
El New Deal
El New Deal. Historia del siglo XX
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfGu0dTNo_0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfGu0dTNo_0
El New Deal
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AisZZ8yWumk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfGu0dTNo_0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfGu0dTNo_0
El New Deal
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AisZZ8yWumk
2. El medio físico de España. Vicens Vives, 2016
PAGINA 34
8 LOS RELIEVES
INSULARES: BALEARES Y CANARIAS
El territorio insular
español lo constituyen los archipiélagos de Baleares y Canarias. El origen de
estas islas es muy distinto: las islas Baleares son tierras emergidas que
forman parte de relieves peninsulares. Las islas Canarias, en cambio, son
relieves de origen volcánico.
8.1. El archipiélago balear
Las islas de
Mallorca, Ibiza y Formentera son partes emergidas de la Cordillera Subbética,
por lo que predomina el roquedo calizo:
Al Norte de la isla
de Mallorca se eleva la abrupta Sierra de Tramuntana, con altitudes
considerables, como el Puig Major (1.436 m), e imponentes acantilados, como el
de la costa de Formentor. La Sierra de Levante posee altitudes más modestas (Son
Morell, 562 m) y se hunde en el mar para emerger de nuevo en el islote de
Cabrera.
Entre la Sierra de
Tramuntana y la Sierra de Levante se extiende una amplia depresión central de
relieve ondulado, formada por aluviones, sobre cuyos suelos arcillosos prospera
la agricultura. En los extremos de la depresión se abren la bahía de Palma y
las bahías de Alcúdia y Pollença.
Las islas de Ibiza y
Formentera estuvieron unidas hasta el Periodo Cuaternario. Ambas presentan un
relieve montañoso y una llanura que ocupa el Sur de Ibiza y gran parte de
Formentera.
El relieve de la isla
de Menorca es un caso peculiar, porque las tierras de Tramuntana, en la parte
Norte de la isla, se relacionan con las Cordilleras Costero-Catalanas, y se
supone que formó parte del antiguo macizo catalano-balear.
Esta zona de la isla
es de materiales paleozoicos y da lugar a relieves erosionados de escasa
altitud. La mitad Sur de la isla, o Migjorn, es llana, formada por materiales
calizos de origen marino y, vista desde el mar, presenta forma de
mesa.
El roquedo calizo en Mallorca
Las sierras de
Tramuntana y de Levante, de Mallorca, son de rocas calcáreas. La caliza es una
roca bastante dura pero está atravesada por multitud de pequeñas
grietas.
Las aguas de lluvia
penetran por esas ranuras y van disolviendo la roca, formando cuevas de gran
belleza con estalactitas y estalagmitas, como por ejemplo las cuevas de Artà y
del Drach.
PAGINA 35
8.2. El archipiélago canario
Las islas Canarias se
originaron durante el Periodo Terciario, cuando el movimiento alpino rompió las
placas tectónicas del océano Atlántico. A través de estas fracturas ascendieron
grandes masas de materiales volcánicos que fueron acumulándose en el fondo del
océano, dando lugar a la Gran Dorsal Atlántica, de la cual emergieron islas
volcánicas como Islandia, las Azores o las Canarias.
El relieve volcánico
de Canarias es muy complejo. Sus materiales presentan una gran diversidad de
formas y disposiciones como resultado de los diferentes momentos geológicos. De
hecho, la formación de las islas Canarias es un proceso que continúa: el Teide,
el volcán más importante del archipiélago, que además es el pico más alto de
España (3.715 m), es un volcán activo. Las islas de Gran Canaria y de La Gomera
tienen forma circular. Esto se debe a que estas islas son dos enormes volcanes
que sobresalen por encima de las aguas del mar. Por esa razón, en un corto
trecho, alcanzan una gran altitud hasta llegar a la cumbre central.
Las islas más
próximas al continente africano o del grupo Oriental (Lanzarote y
Fuerteventura) son bastante llanas, mientras que las islas del grupo Occidental
(Tenerife, La Palma, La Gomera y El Hierro) y Gran Canaria son muy
montañosas.
Los relieves
volcánicos canarios presentan una gran diversidad de formas: conos volcánicos;
grandes calderas resultantes de la erosión o del hundimiento de conos
volcánicos; diques duros de basalto que forman roques o pitones; barrancos
abiertos en tiempos de lluvias torrenciales; coladas o mantos de lavas;
acantilados donde las montañas se hunden en el mar; y playas de arena y dunas
en las costas bajas. En los espacios con sedimentos de rocas volcánicas
descompuestas, crecen los cultivos, como ocurre en el fértil valle de La
Orotava, en Tenerife.
Las erupciones volcánicas
En Canarias hay
referencias históricas de una gran actividad volcánica en la isla de Lanzarote
(1730-1736), que obligó a sus habitantes a evacuar la isla.
El episodio volcánico
más cercano se dio entre octubre de 2011 y marzo de 2012, cuando un volcán
submarino entró en erupción a unos 5 km al sur de El Hierro. Se produjeron
cientos de seísmos que obligaron a evacuar algunas poblaciones cercanas a la
costa.
Medieval Scandinavian Armies (2) 1300-1500
https://imtw.ru/topic/78699-severo-vostochnaya-evropa-v-period-pozdnego-sred/
http://users.atw.hu/medievalhouse/OsMedScanArm_1300-1500.pdf
E: SWEDEN, EARLY 15th CENTURY
E1: Swedish militia crossbowman, early
15th century
Swedish militiamen are depicted defending a brate field
fortification on a forest path against a Danish force. The
helmet, with a broad brim dipping to points at front and
back, also has a strengthening strip riveted across the skull
from front to back. Beneath it the mail coif has an integral
padded lining, especially across the shoulders, which
appear rather bulky. The fabric covering of the breast plate
is glued to the surface of the iron as well as showing
numerous small brass rivet heads; it is closed by straps and
buckles at the sides. The four iron hoops or lames around
and below the waist form a slightly flexible fauld, and are
again covered with a layer of cloth. Three holes on the right
breast of the breastplate show where a lance-rest was
originally riveted. The man has no further armour, but wears
a woollen tunic and the loose-fitting woollen trousers which
became a distinguishing feature of northern Scandinavian
peasant costume. Around the waist is a very broad leather
belt for the double-pronged iron spanning hook which hangs
from a broad leather loop at the front. Beneath this is a plain
leather sword belt with an iron buckle. The leather-covered
wooden scabbard with its iron chape sits in a simple leather
loop on the left side of the sword belt. The sword has a
spherical iron pommel, iron quillons and a leather-covered
grip. Behind the bowman's right hip a plain leather quiver for
crossbow bolts hangs by rawhide thongs to the sword belt.
A flat wooden buckler with a large iron boss again has an
iron reinforcement ring near the edge. The crossbow is a
normal form with a parchment-covered composite stave,
wooden stock, iron trigger and stirrup, the latter secured
by the same bunches of rawhide thongs that fasten the bow
to the stock.
E2: Swedish man-at-arms, first half 15th century
This knight or professional cavalryman has full plate armour
or 'white harness', though for some reason the laminated
steel fauld below his breast- and back-plates has been
removed. This armour is not in the latest style, and might be
considered old-fashioned further south. The bascinet is of a
normal pointed style, but lacks both a visor and a mail
aventail; the large swivel rivet head where a visor would be
attached can be seen on the side, as can the iron vervelles
for an aventail. On the other hand he does have a padded
mail colliere beneath the cuirass, closed at the throat by
short buckled straps. The breast- and back-plates have
buckled straps at the sides; note a raised iron bar riveted to
the upper chest, to stop a lance point sliding up into the
wearer's throat, and two holes in the right breast where a
lance-rest could be attached. The long, brightly coloured,
decorative scalloped 'fringes' emerging from the arm holes
of the cuirass may come from another otherwise unseen
padded jupon or an early form of arming doublet. Beneath
this a short-sleeved and short-hemmed mail shirt is worn
over a thickly quilted gambeson. The complete iron plate arm
harness includes rerebraces, couters and vambraces plus
iron gauntlets with integral leather gloves. A narrow, loose
fitting sword belt with gilded buckle and numerous gilded,
enamelled decorative lozenges supports a blackened
leather-covered wooden scabbard with a gilded chape, hung
by means of rings set on two off-set gilded bands. The sword
is a long-bladed, long-hilted 'hand-and-a-half weapon with
Archaeological evidence fortunately helps where the
crossbows of these northern hunters were concerned. The
form shown here is released when a wooden peg is thrust
upwards through the stock by the wooden trigger, thus
pushing the bowstring out of a slot in the top of the stock.
The bow itself consists of a simple wooden stave, though
this has a flattened section, rather like the so-called 'flat
bows' which were also used by the people of the Arctic
north in earlier years.
A: THE EARLY 14TH CENTURY
A: THE EARLY 14th CENTURY
A1: Norwegian knight
In addition to a brimmed chapel-de-fer form of helmet this
man wears a mail coif inside what appears to be a separate
and padded mail colliere; the coif is laced at the back of the
head, while the mail colliere is worn inside the surcoat. The
leather-covered wooden shield, of a quite modern form, is
here slung on the man's back on its leather guige. A simple
and rather old-fashioned mail hauberk has long sleeves but
no mittens. Beneath his hauberk he has a padded soft
armour or gambeson and a darker coloured woolen tunic.
Over his linen surcoat the knight has a rope-like waist cord
from which hangs the sheath of a substantial dagger with an
iron guard and bar-like pommel. Because he is armed with a
heavy, single-edged falchion he does not wear a sword belt.
His legs are protected by mail chausses, as worn by A2.
A2: Swedish nobleman
This man's German 'great helm' has a slightly pointed top
plate which is considerably thicker than the side plates and
also has a ventilation or plume-hole at the top. Over a linen
shirt he has a new-style mail coif, here shown lying on his
shoulders; a leather draw cord would tighten the coif around
his head, and there was probably a padded arming cap
sewn or laced to the inside. The long-sleeved mail hauberk
has integral mail mittens with laces to tighten the mail
around the wrists; they are shown here hanging off his
hands, which protrude through slits in their kid leather
palms. The nobleman's surcoat is permanently riveted to an
early form of coat-of-plates beneath. The plates only protect
his chest, abdomen and lower back; they are secured to the
surcoat by gilded rivet heads, and there is also what appears
to be a pattern in gold thread embroidery over the junctions
of the corners of the plates - perhaps to inhibit wear or
fraying. The narrow leather waist belt has a gilded buckle
while the broader sword belt also has a large gilded buckle,
buckle plate and bar-like stiffeners. The fact that the hem of
the surcoat is slit at the sides rather than the front and back
seems to indicate German influence. The mail chausses
which protect his legs only go over the tops of his feet, these
mail flaps being laced to the woollen hose beneath. The
method of lacing the sword belt to the scabbard is also
rather German; typically the wooden scabbard would
be covered with colour-stained leather, with gilded
reinforcements and a gilded chape, and the sword has a
gilded pommel and quillons. The leather-covered interior of
the wooden shield has a notably complex system of straps,
buckles and of course a leather guige
A3: Danish crossbowman
Here a segmented and broad-brimmed iron 'kettle' helmet is
worn over a smaller, close-fitting iron cervelliere. Beneath
both there is a mail coif with leather laces at the back, which
is itself worn over a thickly padded colliere or spaulder which
protects the neck and shoulders. Over a mail hauberk with
three-quarter-length sleeves he wears a cloth-covered coat
of-plates. Here each of the internal plates is apparently
secured by a pair of small bronze or gilded rivet-heads. The
dull coloured tunic beneath the mail hauberk is probably of
wool. The plain leather sword-belt has an iron buckle but is
attached to the scabbard by a new system of two D-rings on
the sides of a metallic band around the scabbard; this is of plain leather-covered wood with an iron chape, while the
short, barely tapering sword has an iron hilt and leather
covered grip. Instead of a full sized shield this man has
a small leather-covered wooden buckler with a large
domed iron boss plus narrow riveted iron reinforcements.
Dipping below the sword belt is a broad leather spanning
belt for his crossbow, supporting a double iron spanning
hook attached by rawhide thongs. A plain leather quiver for
crossbow bolts would hang behind his right hip, attached
to the sword belt. The large crossbow has a wooden stock,
iron trigger and stirrup, and a parchment-covered stave of
composite construction.
B-C: VISBY
B/C: LAST STAND OF THE GOTLAND
MILITIA; VISBY, 27 JULY 1361
This scene shows Danish knights of King Valdemar IV's army
closing in on the last Swedish defenders outside the walls of
Visby on the island of Gotland, where the excavated grave
pits have revealed a remarkable amount of armour.
B/C1: Gotland rural nobleman
The bascinet form of helmet worn by this wealthy and influ
ential leader has a hole above the temples on each side of
the skull where the swivels for a visor would be attached.
There is a band of leather beneath the protruding iron
vervelles or staples; through these a coloured cord is
threaded to secure the mail aventail, which covers the man's
neck, chin and shoulders. Over the shoulders of the aventail
he has a fabric-covered coat-of-plates whose very large
internal iron plates are secured by rivets; it is secured by four
buckled straps up the back. Beneath this he wears a long
sleeved mail hauberk, and his hands are protected by
mail-covered and thickly padded gauntlets. The leather
covered wooden shield is supported by a leather guige. The
broad colour-stained leather sword belt has a gilded buckle,
buckle plate, strap end, and disc-shaped stiffeners, while
the scabbard is attached to the belt by rings. The coloured
leather-covered wooden scabbard has a gilded chape, and
the tapering sword has gilded quillons and pommel. A linen
shirt or tunic is worn beneath the mail hauberk. Over the
thighs and knees are soft padded leather cuisses, with
domed iron poleyns riveted to the knees. His greaves consist
of long, narrow iron strips riveted to thick, brightly coloured
'stockings' over the legs but not over the feet. The iron
sabatons only cover the tops of his feet, each lame being
riveted to the next, and laced to mail chausses beneath by
leather thongs. These mail chausses actually cover both feet
and legs beneath the greaves.
B/C2: Gotland merchant militiaman
Although apparently a prosperous man, his military
equipment is old-fashioned. The segmented helmet with its
broad nasal is particularly archaic; beneath this he has a
simple mail coif to protect neck and shoulders. Seemingly
most old-fashioned of all is the large round wooden shield
hung on his back by a broad leather guige; the leather
covering on its face is secured by small iron nails around the
rim. The long-sleeved mail hauberk is again in a simple,
archaic style; the way it is cut away at the back of the hem
suggests that it might even date from the late 12th century.
Beneath the hauberk is a padded gambeson over a plain
woollen tunic; his legs and feet are protected by mail
chausses, his hands by mail-covered and thickly padded
gauntlets. The coat-of-plates is a very interesting item, which may have been remade from a laced lamellar cuirass. The
elements or lamellae are, however, now attached to each
other with iron rivets rather than leather lacing. The upper
rows overlap downwards, while the lower three rows overlap
upwards, leaving a narrower row just above waist-height
which is overlapped from above and below. The lowest
two rows also extend around the front and sides of the body
only, not the back. Broad buckled straps support the coat
of-plates on the shoulders, and there are scale-shaped iron
flaps around most of the edge of the arm holes, again
secured by iron rivets. This coat-of-plates opens fully down
the front, where a substantial overlap is closed by iron
buckled straps on all the rows of lamellae except the lowest.
Finally, the man is armed with a very substantial war-axe.
B/C3: Gotland peasant footsoldier
The substantial cheek pieces attached to this man's
brimmed chapel-de-fer were a distinctively Scandinavian
style. Otherwise the rest of this ordinary peasant militiaman's
equipment is simple, old-fashioned, and probably shows
signs of wear over several generations. It consists of a mail
coif, a thickly padded mail-covered colliere or spaulder to
protect his neck and shoulders, an old mail hauberk with
integral mail mittens, a linen-covered quilted gambeson, and
mail chausses which are here worn inside his shoes. The
wrists of the hauberk are again tightened with leather laces.
The great bearskin coat with flap-like sleeves, secured at
the front by a rawhide loop and horn toggle, may also have
provided additional protection. The plain leather-covered
scabbard with iron chape is simply thrust into a plain
belt with an iron buckle; the sword has an undecorated
iron pommel and quillons and leather-covered grip. The
large-bladed iron spear has 'winged' extensions from the
socket. The flat wooden buckler with a large iron boss over
the fist-grip bar has a single iron reinforcement ring nailed
to the front.
B/C4: Danish nobleman
In contrast to the old-fashioned arms and armour of the
Gotland militia, the invading Danes were led by a knightly
elite equipped in a more up-to-date and largely German
style; yet even here there are some features indicating
that Denmark was a little behind the times. The rim of
the bascinet goes low around the neck; a mail aventail is
secured inside the lower part of the helmet by leather lacing through holes in the rim. There is also a tumbuckle above
the forehead to secure a visor. Hardened leather shoulder
pieces are just visible, attached to an unseen coat-of-plates
beneath the tight-fitting surcoat. Very simple iron rerebraces
cover the outsides of the upper arms, where they are
secured by buckled straps. An unusually limited form of
hinged and buckled iron vambrace protects most of the
lower arms; these do not reach the wrists, although they
do overlap the rerebraces at the elbows. (Some sources
show vambraces with linings which extend as decoratively
scallopped fringes around their lower ends.) The iron
gauntlets incorporate soft leather gloves. Beneath the plated
arm defences and the coat-of-plates is a long-sleeved
mail hauberk. The tight-fitting surcoat is decorated with
embroidered heraldic dragons; three iron chains emerge
from slits in the chest, one leading to the dagger, one to the
sword, and one being currently unused. A broad and highly
decorated sword belt sits low around the hips. Attached
to this is a colour-stained leather-covered wooden scabbard
for a sword with gilded pommel and quillons. A 'ballock'
dagger with gilded hilt mounts is carried in a dark leather
sheath with a gilded chape. The scale-lined cuisses over
the thighs are covered in brightly coloured fabric with a
decorative scalloped fringe, and gilded rivets secure the
internal scales. The domed poleyns are made of hardened
leather and their upper edges pass beneath the cuisses. The
brightly coloured greaves are similarly made of hardened
leather, reinforced with gilded iron straps down the front
and around the sides but not the rear of the leg; there is a
scalloped fringe at the ankles. Iron sabatons protect the
tops of his feet while mail chausses cover both feet and
legs beneath the sabatons and greaves. Invisible here,
the leather-covered wooden cantle and pommel of the
saddle would reflect the nobleman's heraldic insignia. Note
that the reins are partly of leather covered with coloured
fabric and partly of 'weapons proof iron chains.
B/C5: Danish knight
This Danish knight appears even more German in style than
the nobleman. His tall and slightly pointed bascinet is worn
over a mail coif which passes inside his surcoat. The
parchment-covered wooden ailettes laced to the hardened
leather shoulder pieces of his coat-of-plates are, of course,
only for heraldic identification purposes and serve no pro
tective function. Most of the coat-of-plates is covered with
brightly coloured fabric while gilded rivet-heads secure
the internal iron lames or scales. It is mostly obscured by the
tight-fitting surcoat in matching colour with similar scalloped
hems, which is laced down the sides of the body - note that
the back is much longer than the front.
40
He also wears two mail hauberks or shirts, the outer one
being short-sleeved and short-hemmed. On the upper arms,
between these two mail armours, are hardened leather rere
braces held by buckled straps. The gauntlets are largely
covered with iron plates. An off-white quilted aketon beneath the coat-of-plates and mail shirts has the hem slit at the
sides rather than front and back. A sword belt emerges from
beneath the surcoat, supporting the scabbarded sword; this
is not being used at the moment because the knight wields
a heavy falchion. His legs are protected by domed iron
poleyns secured by buckled straps around the backs of his
knees, plus fabric-covered, scale-lined cuisses with gilded
rivet heads. The iron greaves cover the fronts of his legs only,
but beneath them are mail chausses, while the sabatons
consist of riveted iron lames. The gilded rowel spurs
have coloured leather straps with gilded buckles. The cloth caparison covering the body and neck of the horse is purely
decorative and contains no protective layers; beneath the
head part there is, however, a hardened leather chamfron.
B/C6: German mercenary infantryman
Compared with his Danish employers, this German profes
sional soldier is equipped in the latest style for close combat.
A bulbous form of chapel-de-fer is worn over a small
iron bascinet with a mail aventail attached by vervelles.
Just visible is an iron pin-and-loops fastening attached to a
stiff leather patch, which enabled his coat-of-plates to be
opened at the right shoulder only. This coat-of-plates has a simple cloth covering with visible iron rivet heads and
polished bronze washers to secure the internal splints or
lames. Beneath this is a short-sleeved mail shirt over a long
sleeved mail hauberk. Iron plates are riveted to substantial
leather gloves to form simple gauntlets. The plain leather belt
with an iron buckle supports a large form of basilard dagger
with bronze plates riveted to the cross bars of its H-shaped
hilt; its darkened leather sheath is secured behind a leather
pouch. The fabric-covered cuisses are lined with iron scales
secured by rivets; iron poleyns are strapped over the knees;
iron greaves cover the fronts of his legs and iron sabatons
the tops of his feet, over mail chausses. The soldier carries
no shield but is armed with a large-bladed guisarme.
D: ICELAND, LATE 14th
CENTURY
D1: Norwegian royal official
This representative of the crown has arrived in Iceland to
collect taxes. Beneath a flat-topped fur hat with a large
brooch and decorative feather, as seen in some
Scandinavian art of this period, is a very ordinary off-white
linen coif. A mail spaulder around his neck and shoulders
has a white fabric lining which probably indicates some
element of padding. The short-sleeved and otherwise close
fitting surcoat is decorated with embroidered heraldic
shields and bands of cloth-of-gold. The shape of the chest
probably indicates that a thickly padded jupon is worn
beneath, rather than any form of rigid body armour. The man
does, however, have a long-sleeved mail hauberk with iron
couters buckled around the elbows, plus fur-lined leather
gloves. The coloured leather sword belt low on his hips has
E: SWEDEN, EARLY 15th CENTURY
F: SWEDISH FINLAND
F: SWEDISH FINLAND, MID-15th CENTURY
F1: Swedish man-at-arms
One of the defenders of a Swedish frontier castle in Finland,
under bombardment by Russian artillery, this man has arms
and armour indicating either a person of considerable wealth
and prestige, or that he had served in Burgundy where he
had purchased a full suit of the latest armour. This includes
a notably deep form of sallet with an eye slit, and a fixed
bevor to protect his throat and lower face, this being secured
by a buckled strap around the back of his neck. The bevor
did not, of course, move when he turned his head from side
to side, being secured by an iron pin through an iron loop on
the breast-plate. Beneath the bevor is a mail colliere. The
outer plate or plackart of his breast-plate is partially fluted at
the front and, like the breast- and back-plates beneath, is
hinged on the left side while being buckled at the right. Both
the inner breast-plate and the outer plackart have a slightly
forwards-thrust profile. The iron fauld of this cuirass consists
of five lames which are again hinged down the left side and
buckled down the right. Beneath the steel cuirass is an
ordinary mail hauberk whose sleeves are worn inside the
plate arm defences. Between the laminated spaulders and
fluted roundels on his shoulders, however, there appear the
shorter and much broader sleeves of another whole or
partial mail garment. The plate arm defences again consist
of rerebrace, very large couters with wings to protect the
fronts of the elbows, vambraces for the lower arms, and
gauntlets with elongated 'cuffs' up the outsides of the arms.
His leg harness is similarly complete and includes sabatons
made of numerous narrow lames across the feet plus fluted
toe-caps, with leather shoes worn inside. The dark leather
sword belt passes twice around the body; this would stop it
slipping, and also enabled the scabbard to be attached at
two alternative points depending on whether the man was
on foot or on horseback. The scabbard itself has a pair of
soft leather sleeves beneath the leather loop straps which
connect to the belt. The sword has a long grip, a remarkably
small iron pommel, and S-shaped flattened iron quillons.
F2: Swedish crossbowman
The tall, pointed, one-piece 'onion-dome' helmet has a
relatively flat brim, which seems to have become a typical
Scandinavian feature. The white fabric lining of his padded
mail colliere is visible around the neck, this piece of armour
being worn with the buckles down the back rather than the
front. A short-sleeved mail hauberk is worn beneath a
brigandine, though the latter is his primary protection. Under
the hauberk there appears to be a fur-lined garment,
perhaps reflecting the local climate. The cloth-covered
brigandine itself consists of numerous small internal scales
each secured by three small brass rivets, plus a pair of larger
plates on the chest. This armour opened down the front
where it was secured by buckled straps. As usual the arm
harness consists of rerebraces, coulters and vambraces.
The narrow leather belt seems to have no function apart
from keeping the brigandine tightly closed. A broader
leather sword belt passes through slits in a leather sleeve
around the scabbard. The sword, though apparently simple,
is actually very advanced, having a horizontal iron finger
protecting ring on one side of its iron quillons. A broad
leather spanning belt has a large iron ring at the front to
which the rope of a small spanning pulley is attached. The
pulley has an 8-shaped iron ring at the end, which would be
placed over the iron 'plug' at the butt end of the crossbow
stock; running along the rawhide rope is a simple iron pulley
with a substantial iron hook. This large form of crossbow
was used in siege warfare; the iron stirrup is large enough
for two feet, and the stave is of solid wood rather than
composite construction.
F3: Finnish auxiliary, c.1475
Pictorial evidence suggests that at least some of the troops
stationed in Swedish-ruled late medieval Finland were
equipped in up-to-date styles. This infantryman has the very
deep form of chapel-de-fer helmet with an eye slit cut into
the front of the brim. He also has the usual padded mail
colliere beneath a full plate cuirass. In addition to a short
sleeved mail hauberk beneath the other armour, he wears
plate iron spaulders or shoulder armour which are different
for each arm. The rest of the arm defences are, however,
symmetrical, consisting of rerebraces, couters (with the
wings removed for some reason), vambraces, and rather
massive iron gauntlets. Though he has the breast- and back
plates of an iron cuirass, held up by broad leather
shoulder-straps, the laminated fauld and plackart of this
armour have been removed. His plate leg harness only
covers the front of the legs; the tops of his feet, hidden here,
are protected only by flaps of mail rather than laminated
sabatons. His weapon is a singularly massive iron halberd
with a cutting blade, a thrusting point, and a hook to pull
cavalry from their horses.
G: THE BATTLE OF THE BRUNKENBERG, 10 DE OCTUBRE OCTOBER 1471
At this battle King Christian of Denmark and Norway was
defeated by Swedish forces under the regent Sten Sture.
G1: Danish man-at-arms
Here a visored form of sallet helmet has the visor lowered;
there is no bevor, but the man's throat is protected by a
cloth-lined and padded mail colliere which also covers his
shoulders. The upper edge of his breast-plate is just visible
at the neck. However, German or even Central European
fashionable influence is indicated by the loose-fitting
garment with very puffed sleeves which is worn between the
breast-plate and the outer plackart; this spectacular garment
would probably be of velvet and has gold thread embroidery
around the neck. The steel plate plackart outside the velvet
'jacket' is hinged on the left side and has buckled straps on
the right, as is the laminated steel fauld around the abdomen
and hips. Steel tassets on buckled straps hang from the
fauld to protect the upper thighs. Steel mittens with mail over
the outsides of the thumbs and fingers have integral leather
gloves. Beneath all the other armour there is a mail hauberk.
The man-at-arms' full steel leg harness incorporates mail
flaps from beneath the knee and upper shin protections, and
there are leather shoes inside his sabatons. A simple rondel
dagger, with gilt mounts and a polished wood grip, sits in a
dark leather sheath on a leather strap to the upper circuit of
the doubled sword belt. The sword belt goes twice around
the waist and hips, and has a gilded buckle. The scabbard
hangs from the upper circuit of the sword-belt because the
man is on foot; leather straps from the belt pass around
rawhide sleeves on the leather-covered scabbard. The
sword has a leather covered grip, gilded quillons, and a
gilded pommel in the form of an open ring (which recalls
some Irish swords of a similar period).
G2: Danish hand-gunner
In additional to a simple form of brimmed iron chapel-de-fer
this soldier has a conventional padded mail colliere around
his neck and shoulders, though on this occasion the buckled
opening is at the back. A thickly quilted linen-covered, long
sleeved gambeson is worn over an unseen brigandine or
breast-plate. Beneath this he wears a mail hauberk. Though
he has no other apparent arm protection, he wears almost
complete leg armour consisting of cuisses for the front of the
thighs, poleyns for the knees, and hinged and buckled
greaves which wrap around the entire lower legs; he has no
sabatons, and the mail chausses beneath his plate leg
armour end just below his ankles. A plain leather belt with an
iron buckle supports a large leather bag on looped straps to
contain powder, shot and other necessities. The handgun
may have been imported from Germany or somewhere else
in Central Europe; the barrel is secured by a nailed strap
around the massive wooden stock. His only defensive
weapon appears to be an iron-headed war-hammer on a
wooden haft with a leather wrist-loop.
G3: Danish militia crossbowman
Here another, much deeper version of the chapel-de-fer has
a steeply sloped brim with two eye holes at the front; these
are surrounded by a raised lip to stop enemy weapons
sliding into the eye slits. A mail coif over his head and neck
is worn beneath a mail colliere with cloth lining and padding,
which covers most of the shoulders. Laminated iron
spaulders or shoulder armour are probably fastened to the
shoulders of the brigandine and are clearly secured by
buckled straps beneath the arms and armpits. Beneath
these the bowman wears a three-quarter-sleeved mail
hauberk over plate iron or steel vambraces for his lower
arms; there are appararently no couters to protect the
elbows. Interestingly, the lower hem of the hauberk is slit at
the sides rather than the front and back. A fabric-covered
brigandine has numerous sets of triple rivets to secure its
internal scales. Over this there is a steel-plate plackart to
protect the wearer's abdomen and back, hinged on the left
side and buckled on the right. A plain leather sword belt
supports a scabbard which is attached at three points. The
scabbard itself is of leather-covered wood with an iron
chape, while the strongly tapering sword has a round iron
pommel and straight quillons. Iron leg armour covers the
fronts of the thighs, knees and upper shins only; it is secured
by buckled straps over quilted chausses and close-fitting
woollen hose. The rather floppy leather boots suggest that
this soldier expects to ride rather than to walk very far. A
leather-covered, wood-reinforced quiver for crossbow bolts
is attached to the right hip of his leather belt by rawhide
thongs. The large and very up-to-date form of crossbow
incorporates a parchment-covered composite stave; it is
spanned with a lever-operated steel 'crow's-foot'.
H: NORTHERN SWEDEN
H: NORTHERN SWEDEN, 15th-EARLY 16th
CENTURY
H1: Swedish militiaman, end of 15th century
Soldiers from a northern outpost or town are questioning a
nomadic Lapp family. Once again a Swedish soldier's
military equipment betrays clear German influence, partic
ularly apparent in the blackened steel sallet, which is here
tipped back on the head for clearer vision; note the upswept
rear point. The usual padded mail colliere has its buckled
fastening at the front and is worn over a short-sleeved mail
haubergeon. Over these is a blackened cuirass, hinged on
the left side and buckled on the right; blackened steel
tassets for the fronts of hips and upper thighs are attached
by buckled straps to a single-lame fauld which is itself
riveted outside the lower edge of the breast-plate. The
man's dark woollen tunic is presumably tucked into his
trousers as it is not visible around the thighs. His very loose
and crumpled trousers are worn beneath blackened steel
greaves, resulting in a bloused effect below his knees. His
weapons consist of a ballock dagger with a bronze grip, in a
leather sheath hung from a leather strap to a plain leather
belt with an iron buckle. The primary staff weapon looks
almost as if it has been made of a short sword thrust into the
end of a stout pole. Leather binding close around the top
and base of this pole is also wound in a more extended
manner around the rest of the shaft.
H2: Swedish longbowman, end of 15th century
Another distinctive version of the deep-brimmed iron
chapel-de-fer with eye holes cut into the front of its brim
appears in a remarkable series of drawings made by a
German mercenary who fought in Sweden around the
year 1500. Once again a mail colliere is buckled at the
front of the throat and is worn beneath a plackart or a
limited form of breast- and back-plates. The latter are
joined by sturdy leather straps across the shoulders and
are partially fluted. The three lames of a hip-protecting
fauld only appear at the front of the body, not over the
lower back or buttocks. A loose-fitting woollen shirt is
again tucked into typically Swedish thick, loose-fitting
woollen trousers. The soft leather moccassin-like
overshoes worn on top of ordinary leather shoes may be
another characteristic element of northern Scandinavian
costume. A wooden water bottle hangs from a plain
leather belt by rawhide thongs and seems to be made like
a flattened barrel. The very large canvas-covered pack on
his back may actually contain arrows for his longbow. The
latter is itself carried in a long canvas bag with the top end
folded over, the whole apparently being thrust through or
looped from the waist belt.
H3: Lapp hunter, 16th century
Pictorial representations of the people of the far north of
Scandinavia apparently made from verbal descriptions in
the 15th and early 16th centuries are not reliable, but do
include certain elements in common with more accurate
17th century illustrations. Given the highly traditional nature
of nomadic Lapp culture, in which much the same costumes
were still being worn in late 19th and early 20th century
photographs, it is fair to assume that 16th century Lapps
looked similar to those shown in the 17th century sources.
Here, for example, a Lapp man wears a very distinctive tall
but slightly floppy hat made from sewn sections of animal
skin with the fur inside. The version of the traditional Lapp
animal-skin coat which had a tall standing collar generally
went out of style in later centuries. However, the very full
'skirts' of such fur-lined tunics remained, as did the animal
skin mittens, trousers and soft moccassin-style shoes.
H4: Lapp woman, 16th century
A comparable degree of continuity was apparent in Lapp
female costume. Most clothing was, of course, again made
of animal-skins worn with the fur inside. The main difference
was that a woman's traditional coat or tunic reached her
ankles whereas that worn by men only reached a little below
the knees. The reindeer carrying the baby and the family's
tent poles is again based upon 17th century sources. Two
sets of four poles are attached, one on each side, over
the distinctive 'saddle pad' and wooden 'saddle boards'.
The latter are joined by rawhide thongs above the animal's
back. The almost boat-shaped leather-covered cradle, also
tied to one of the saddle boards, continued to be used, with
only minor variations, until modern times
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