A: HISPANIA
(1) Miles gregarius; Legio VII Gemina, AD 300–325
This common soldier of Constantine’s army is based on a mosaic at Alter do Chão (Abelterium) and archaeological material from León. The helmet of Poitiers type has a crest attached to a frontal juba equina. The lorica segmentata, still being produced in the Iberian Peninsula, is of hybrid ‘Alba Iulia’ type, although the copper-alloy pectoral fastening plates are obscured here by his sagum. The system of suspending the spatha sword from a baldric lasted until at least AD 325.
(2) Tribunus; Lusitania, c.AD 350 This Roman officer is basically reconstructed from the same mosaic. He holds a pseudo-Attic helmet, and wears a galericulum cap shown in a hunting mosaic from Olmeda. His armour is a copper-alloy thorax heroikon with separate shoulder plates, worn over a rich subarmalis/thoracomacus with linen pteryges, and his ochrae greaves are of silvered
copper alloy. His sword is a magnificent parazonium represented in a mid-century sculpture from Alicante.
(3) Miles limitaneus; Carthaginiensis, AD 400–450 This trooper in eastern-central Hispania is dressed in a decorated long-sleeved tunic under a heavy cloak. He is armed with a long lancea, two venabula and a dagger of Simancas type in an impressive openwork sheath, and slung from his shoulder is the unique copper-alloy shield excavated at Tinto Juan de la Cruz. We take elements of his costume fittings and horse harness from the same site; note the horse’s rich collar, its tufa head decoration, and the ‘FV’ brand of a famous Hispanic horse-breeder.
(1) Miles gregarius; Legio VII Gemina, AD 300–325
This common soldier of Constantine’s army is based on a mosaic at Alter do Chão (Abelterium) and archaeological material from León. The helmet of Poitiers type has a crest attached to a frontal juba equina. The lorica segmentata, still being produced in the Iberian Peninsula, is of hybrid ‘Alba Iulia’ type, although the copper-alloy pectoral fastening plates are obscured here by his sagum. The system of suspending the spatha sword from a baldric lasted until at least AD 325.
(2) Tribunus; Lusitania, c.AD 350 This Roman officer is basically reconstructed from the same mosaic. He holds a pseudo-Attic helmet, and wears a galericulum cap shown in a hunting mosaic from Olmeda. His armour is a copper-alloy thorax heroikon with separate shoulder plates, worn over a rich subarmalis/thoracomacus with linen pteryges, and his ochrae greaves are of silvered
copper alloy. His sword is a magnificent parazonium represented in a mid-century sculpture from Alicante.
(3) Miles limitaneus; Carthaginiensis, AD 400–450 This trooper in eastern-central Hispania is dressed in a decorated long-sleeved tunic under a heavy cloak. He is armed with a long lancea, two venabula and a dagger of Simancas type in an impressive openwork sheath, and slung from his shoulder is the unique copper-alloy shield excavated at Tinto Juan de la Cruz. We take elements of his costume fittings and horse harness from the same site; note the horse’s rich collar, its tufa head decoration, and the ‘FV’ brand of a famous Hispanic horse-breeder.
B: BRITANNIA
(1) Miles, Legio II Britannica; Rutupiae, Britannia I/ Maxima Caesariensis, AD 340–367
This soldier from the south-eastern British coast is based on the Low Ham mosaic. He wears a ‘Phrygian’ pilos cap and a leather ‘muscled’ armour over a linen or felt subarmalis. The shield boss (umbo), the culter vanatoris knife, barbed javelin head and belt elements are all from finds at Richborough, while the shield’s deigmaton blazon is shown for the Secundum Britanniciani in the Notitia Dignitatum. The spatha is taken from a Rhineland specimen, but with a hilt and scabbard-throat from British finds.
(2) Centenarius, Equites Honoriani Taifali Seniores; Venta Belgarum, Britannia I, AD 330–370
This officer is based on the Bramdean mosaic, which shows a crested helmet virtually identical to a specimen from Intercisa. His ringmail lorica is from the famous South Shields (Arbeia) find, as are his greaves. The belt, spurs and ‘crossbow’ fibula are from an officer grave at Larkhills, Winchester (ancient Venta Belgarum), and the sword hilt follows Roman tradition. The horse harness is copied from the Boxford mosaic, and its fittings from other British finds.
(3) Praepositus, Numerus Abulcorum; Anderida, Britannia I/Maxima Caesariensis, c.AD 420
Since Germanic leaders rose to high rank within the Late Roman army, it is plausible that an Anglo-Saxon chieftain might have commanded this unit at Pevensey on the Litus Saxonici. He wears a possible reconstruction of the Richborough III helmet, similar to the Budapest (Acquincum) specimen. Note that his squama corselet is combined with a separate scale cape. The probably Germanic sword comes from Feltwell, and his belt set from the Dorchester example. The quiver of javelins is copied from miniatures in the Vergilius Romanus, as are the decorated anaxyida trousers.
C: GALLIA, 4th CENTURY
(1) Miles, Secunda Italica Divitensium; Divitia, Germania II, AD 310
This soldier is reconstructed from sculptures on Constantine’s Arch, but since he pre-dates the battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 he displays no Christian emblems. He wears a pseudo-Attic helmet; his red tunic is from the Piazza Amerina mosaics, and his legwear of brachae and tibiales from miniatures in De Rebus Bellicis. The painting of his lancea shaft may be in unit colours; the javelin in his left hand has a lead weight below the head; and, as described by Vegetius, he also carries plumbatae weighted darts inside his shield.
2) Miles, Salii Seniores; Gallia, AD 395
The Franks were the most active recruits to the Late Roman army, and a regiment of the Auxilia Palatina bore the name of their main tribal division. While they usually kept their own weapons – note the francisca axe and javelins – they were often supplied with Roman clothing, mainly of Egyptian fabrics, and decorated with orbiculi, clavi and segmenti. This ‘ridge-helmet’ of Intercisa-Dunapentele typology was discovered in Worms, and the fittings of the cingulum belt at other German sites; he would have a spatha slung at his left hip.
(3) Draconarius, Catafractarii Ambianenses; Samarobriva Ambianorum, Belgica II, AD 350–400
The head of the draco standard is copied from the well-known Trier specimen, and the heavy cavalryman’s gilded and crested helmet is reconstructed from the recently found Koblenz hoard. His complete armour is partially taken from finds (including a funerary stele) in Lyon, integrated with the Santa Maria Maggore mosaics. He is armed with both a spatha and a securis battle-axe, and his unarmoured horse conforms with period iconography of Catafractarii.
D: GALLIA, 5th CENTURY
(1) Centenarius, Armigeri Defensores Seniores; Mogontiacum, Germania I, AD 407
This centurion of a Legio Comitatensis, who still carries the traditional vine-stick of his rank, is otherwise reconstructed from late Gallic sarcophagi, and from a grave at Vireux-Molhain in the Ardennes (including the cingulum, and the hasta with a painted shaft). The pileus pannonicus cap is copied from the Leiden specimen; the spatha, of the Osterburken-Kemathen type, is from Idesheim; and the unit’s shield blazon is illustrated in the Notitia Dignitatum.
(2) Praefectus Laetorum; Belgica II, AD 400
Reconstructed in all his splendour, this commander of Germanic troops is based partly on finds in the famous officer-grave at Vermand, integrated with other evidence. We have chosen to give him the silver-gilt helmet from Augsburg-Pfersee, enhanced with a crest from the Santa Maria Maggiore mosaics. The purple vexillum bearing a goldembroidered Christian inscription is taken from that in the dyptich of Honorius at Aosta. The chip-carved decoration on its mount, the fastening system of the sword scabbard, and the shield with gold and purple scales, are modelled on those illustrated for the Magister Militum Stilicho.
(3) Buccellarius, retinue of Magister Militum Aetius; Catalaunian Fields, AD 451
This personal retainer of the last great general of Western Roman armies is a Visigoth. His helmet of Intercisa-Dunapentele type is enhanced with a red crest, and his main protections are a ringmail lorica and a large shield bearing a Christian motif. His mount was probably captured from an eastern Germanic warrior, an Ostrogoth or Gepid, and its harness is copied from grave-finds at Apahida.
E: ITALIA, 4th CENTURY
(1) Nubian sagittarius; Rome, Italia Suburbicaria, AD 312
This archer appears on Constantine’s Arch, fighting Maxentius’s troops at the Milvian Bridge. Note the small recurved bow, and the practice of carrying poisoned arrows in a taenia headband, which is both shown on the Arch and confirmed by Claudianus (DCS, I, 255): ‘There came at his summons the Nubian with his headdress of short arrows.’ We copy from the Ballana graves his leather jerkin, magnificent silver archer’s thumb-and-bracelet, and arrowheads. Costume colours are from a later depiction of a battle between Blemmes and Sassanians.
(2) Protector, Moesiaci; Aquileia, Italia Annonaria, AD 350–400
Reconstructed from his funerary stele at Aquileia, this unidentified officer of a Palatine legion wears a tall example of the Intercisa-Dunapentele helmet type with a metal crest. Over a long-sleeved tunica manicata decorated with orbiculi at the shoulders, he wears an anatomical ‘muscled’ cuirass lacking the usual Late Roman hemispherical shoulder plates. He wears a plate-decorated cingulum around his waist, and a balteus over his right shoulder supports his sword. He carries a lancea, and a large shield painted with the device of the Moesiaci.
(3) Licinius Fulgentius, Equites Stablesiani; Aquileia, Italia Annonaria, AD 397
We have given this elite cavalryman in northern Italy a reconstruction of the magnificent silver-plated Deurne-Berkasovo type of helmet partly excavated at Santo Giorgio de Nogara. His armour, of metal plates riveted to a fabric backing, is copied from a specimen found in Abkhazia. The cingulum fittings have chip-carved decoration; they, and the spatha pommel of Saint Severin type, are from finds preserved in Aquileia. The sword suspension would require a scabbard slide on the front, obscured here by his shield, which has a Liebenau-type umbo and the deigmaton shown in the Notitia Dignitatum for this unit. Note the costly decoration of his tunica, and the elaborate sagum cloak copied from contemporary Egyptian fragments.
F: ITALIA, 5th CENTURY
(1) Miles, Tertia Legio Italica; Vallatum, Raetia, AD 400–425
The general appearance of this legionary is copied from the Santa Maria Maggiore mosaics, though his helmet reconstructs the Biberwier specimen. His ringmail armour, copper-alloy ‘propeller’ belt-stiffeners, and sword are all copied from finds at Enns. In this period the spatha might be slung from a narrow shoulder baldric or, as here, from a secondary strap below the cingulum.
(2) Comes of Pedites Domesticorum; Rome, AD 400–450
This senior Imperial commander is also based on the mosaics of Santa Maria Maggiore. The magnificent crested helmet is taken from the Alsóhetény specimen, whose typology is visible in the same mosaics. He is wearing a bi-metal squama corselet over a globa and a subarmalis with linen pteryges. His sword (copied from the Altlussheim specimen), and most of his horse harness, are decorated in almandine and cloisonné-work typical of the period. His cingulum, with chipcarved gilded and silvered fittings, is copied from a find in the Crypta Balbi, Rome. Note the shield emblem of the Pedites Domesticorum, from the Oxford manuscript of the Notitia.
(3) Miles Foederatus of the Magister Militum Odoacer; Ravenna, AD 476
Many of the Germanic soldiers commanded by Odoacer were probably equipped like the Italic legions, so we copy the thorax linteum from those of the infantymen visible in the mosaics of Sainta Maria Maggiore. His helmet follows the Iatrus-Krivina specimen of Intercisa-Dunapentele typology; this type is clearly visible on the same mosaics, although gilded. The barbed javelin is from finds at Aquileia, and the high boots from the Achmim-Panopolis examples found in Egypt. To the contemporary belt we have attached horizontally the dagger from the Halberstadt dyptich.
G: PANNONIA & ILLYRICUM
(1) Miles, Sagittarii Venatores; Illyricum, AD 353
This archer of the Auxilia Palatina is dressed in military attire, with the white tunic specific to the Palatini with the usual type of embroidered decorative panels and stripes, although his equipment is as much for war as for hunting. Note his unstrung long Germanic bow; the Kerbschnitt-decorated belt from Illyrian specimens found at Salona; and his throwing axe. According to Vegetius, not all the troops were equipped with head and body protection.
(2) Eques, Cuneus Equitum Dalmatarum; Teutiburgium, Pannonia II, AD 380
A great number of Dalmatae cavalrymen are mentioned in the border provinces of the Pannonian Diocese. This rider is copied from the so-called ‘Sarcophagus of Empress Helen’; however, since the helmets on the sarcophagus had been re-carved in the Renaissance period, we substitute one of the specimens from Dunapentele. The clothing colours are fromthe Tellaro mosaics, and the painted interior of the shield from those of the Piazza Amerina.
(3) Dux Pannoniae Primae; Savaria, early 5th century
This province commander is equipped with a splendour suitable for his very senior rank. We give him the imposing helmet from Budapest (Acquincum), of Deurne-Berkasovo type, variant 2b; made of iron, it is silvered and then gilded all over and decorated with glass bezels imitating precious stones. His scale armour, worn over a thoracomacus with pteryges, is also gilded. The red-purple mantle, the paragauda tunic and high decorated boots (cothurni) show his membership of the Emperor’s inner comitatus. The suspension system of the sword is from finds at Aquincum, and its eagle pommel and jewel-studded scabbard are inspired by images of the tetrarchs.
H: AFRICA
(1) Tubicen, Tertio Augustani; Numidia, c.AD 350
This trumpeter of a Vexillatio Comitatensis is copied from the mosaic of Achilles at Tipasa. The tuba is of the same type as used in the previous century, and we have based it on the specimen from Zsámbék in Pannonia. The Deir-el-Medina type of helmet is not specifically attested for the African provinces, but it was widely used by the Illyrian legionaries sent to Mauretania and Numidia to suppress local uprisings. The belt is copied from a specimen found at Cherchell, Algeria.
(2) Miles of a Cohors Ballistariorum; Sala, Mauretania Tingitana, AD 350–400
The discovery of the copper-alloy remains of a kambestrion at Sala suggest the possible presence of a cohort of balistarii. This Berber auxiliary is copied from the ‘Triumph of Bacchus’ mosaic at Setif, which represents Moorish warriors with bow, quiver, and Roman military tunics decorated with embroidered appliqués. The reconstructed catapult accords with the studies of C. Boube-Piccot.
(3) Eques, Equites Marcomanni; Carthago, Africa Proconsularis, c.AD 420
This Germanic trooper of a Vexillatio Comitatensis wears the eastern helmet from Concesti (Deurne-Berkasovo typology, variant 1a). Kerbschnitt belt fittings are preserved in the Cherchell Museum, but we take as our model for the spatha and semispatha the important specimen from Beja, Portugal, decorated with cloisonné and almandine. The shield is copied from the Munich copy of the Notitia Dignitatum. The new type of Late Roman saddle had a raised tree, sometimes with copper-alloy appliqués, and the harness fittings are copied from Mauretanian finds.
A: HISPANIA
(1) Miles gregarius; Legio VII Gemina, AD 300–325This common soldier of Constantine’s army is based on a mosaic at Alter do Chão (Abelterium) and archaeological material from León. The helmet of Poitiers type has a crest attached to a frontal juba equina. The lorica segmentata, still being produced in the Iberian Peninsula, is of hybrid ‘Alba Iulia’ type, although the copper-alloy pectoral fastening plates are obscured here by his sagum. The system of suspending the spatha sword from a baldric lasted until at least AD 325.
(2) Tribunus; Lusitania, c.AD 350 This Roman officer is basically reconstructed from the same mosaic. He holds a pseudo-Attic helmet, and wears a galericulum cap shown in a hunting mosaic from Olmeda. His armour is a copper-alloy thorax heroikon with separate shoulder plates, worn over a rich subarmalis/thoracomacus with linen pteryges, and his ochrae greaves are of silvered
copper alloy. His sword is a magnificent parazonium represented in a mid-century sculpture from Alicante.
(3) Miles limitaneus; Carthaginiensis, AD 400–450 This trooper in eastern-central Hispania is dressed in a decorated long-sleeved tunic under a heavy cloak. He is armed with a long lancea, two venabula and a dagger of Simancas type in an impressive openwork sheath, and slung from his shoulder is the unique copper-alloy shield excavated at Tinto Juan de la Cruz. We take elements of his costume fittings and horse harness from the same site; note the horse’s rich collar, its tufa head decoration, and the ‘FV’ brand of a famous Hispanic horse-breeder.
(1) Miles gregarius; Legio VII Gemina, AD 300–325This common soldier of Constantine’s army is based on a mosaic at Alter do Chão (Abelterium) and archaeological material from León. The helmet of Poitiers type has a crest attached to a frontal juba equina. The lorica segmentata, still being produced in the Iberian Peninsula, is of hybrid ‘Alba Iulia’ type, although the copper-alloy pectoral fastening plates are obscured here by his sagum. The system of suspending the spatha sword from a baldric lasted until at least AD 325.
(2) Tribunus; Lusitania, c.AD 350 This Roman officer is basically reconstructed from the same mosaic. He holds a pseudo-Attic helmet, and wears a galericulum cap shown in a hunting mosaic from Olmeda. His armour is a copper-alloy thorax heroikon with separate shoulder plates, worn over a rich subarmalis/thoracomacus with linen pteryges, and his ochrae greaves are of silvered
copper alloy. His sword is a magnificent parazonium represented in a mid-century sculpture from Alicante.
(3) Miles limitaneus; Carthaginiensis, AD 400–450 This trooper in eastern-central Hispania is dressed in a decorated long-sleeved tunic under a heavy cloak. He is armed with a long lancea, two venabula and a dagger of Simancas type in an impressive openwork sheath, and slung from his shoulder is the unique copper-alloy shield excavated at Tinto Juan de la Cruz. We take elements of his costume fittings and horse harness from the same site; note the horse’s rich collar, its tufa head decoration, and the ‘FV’ brand of a famous Hispanic horse-breeder.
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